LYTHRUM.

of which are native in this country. Lawsonia inermis is the celebrated HENNA of the East. Cuphea contains many species which are cultivated; they are natives of tropical America. Sonneratia apetala supplies good, close-grained wood; it is a native of India at the mouth of the Ganges. Casia cymosa, the Hardpeer of the Cape, is a shrub growing from 4 to 10 feet high in rocky places; its wood a used for the axles and poles of waggons, as well as tot picture-frames, &c. The POMEGRANATE (Punica Granatum) is placed by Bentham and Hooker in this order. The order is closely connected with the myrtles, but e general distinguishing marks are the following:-The ccyx-k bes are valvate; the petals are generally corrugate and deciduous; the stamens are definite or numerous, attached round the calyx-tube; the ovary is generally free, with two or several cells, numerous ovules, attached to the axis of the cells, or arising from the base. There is ce filiform style with capitate stigma; the seeds are without albumen. The leaves are mostly opposite, entire, wittent stipules. There are about 250 species.

LYTH RUM, a genus of plants belonging to the order LYTHEARIEE. Lythrum salicaria (purple loosestrife) is A native of Europe, about the margins of ponds and rivers, and is very plentiful in the British Isles. The colour of the Sewers varies from crimson to purple. The herbage is generally almost smooth, and of a dark green, but in dry stations it becomes hoary and downy, as well as more def in stature. Lythrum hyssopifolia is found in damp as in England and Ireland.

LYT TLETON, a seaport of New Zealand, in the eaty of Selwyn, walled in by precipitous hills, nearly in the coast centre of the Middle Island. It was formerly wn by the name of Port Cooper, and is also called Port Victoria. It has a large shipping trade, and is 174 miles by sea from Wellington, and 190 from Dunedin north. It is connected with Christchurch, 8 miles east, of which Face it is the port, by a railway tunnelled through the is The town is fairly built, and well provided with cious edifices, schools, banks, and all the usual instirations of a prosperous trading centre. The entrance to the harbour is about 2 miles wide, and there is every taty for the loading of vessels, as ships of large draught e akngside the jetties and wharves, of which there are seral, varying from 116 to 1318 feet in length. The Barbour has been improved by the erection of a breakwater Officer's Point, 210 feet long, which affords protection ng the south-west gales. The Naval Point breakwater 1434 feet long; the two breakwaters inclose an area of 112 acres. The depth of water within the breakvers varies from 17 to 23 feet at low tide. There is also aring dock. The population in 1881 was 4127.

LYTTON, EDWARD GEORGE EARLE LYTTON BULWER-LYTTON, BARON, author, dramaand politician, a younger son of General Bulwer of Hein Hall, Norfolk, was born in May, 1805. His er was the heiress of Richard Warburton Lytton of Aworth, Herts. He graduated B.A. at Cambridge in 16 having in 1825 gained the chancellor's prize for Esa verse by his poem of Sculpture." During his fal days he published some volumes of poems, among * were "Ismael" (1820); “O'Neill, or the Rebel" (17); and he printed, though he did not publish, a *eton entitled "Weeds and Wild Flowers." His first

work, an abortive romance entitled "Falkland," was pased anonymously in 1827. In the following year produced "Pelham," which soon became wonderfully

popular. This novel was succeeded by the "Disowned' in 1828; by "Devereux " in 1829; and by " Paul Clifford" in 1830; while two works, entitled "Eugene Aram" and "Godolphin," were completed and published in 1833. The Mr. Bulwer of those years was a very busy as well as a very celebrated man, for in 1831 he was returned to the House of Commons as member for St. Ives, and he sat for Lincoln from 1832 to 1841. In 1833 he succeeded the poet Campbell for a few months as editor of the New Monthly Magazine, and the same year published his "England and the English." To a continental journey we owe the "Pilgrims of the Rhine" (1834), the "Last Days of Pompeii" (1834), and Rienzi" (1835). On the return of Lord Melbourne to power in 1834, he offered Lytton, who had helped him with a pamphlet called "The Crisis," a place in the government, which was declined, but in 1835 Bulwer accepted a baronetcy, which was conferred ostensibly as a recognition of his eminence in literature. In 1836 Sir Edward Bulwer produced a play entitled "The Duchess of La Vallière," which was withdrawn after a run of only thirteen nights; but his novels," Ernest Maltravers (1837) and its sequel, "Alice, or the Mysteries" (1838), fully sustained his high reputation as a writer of fiction. He was ambitious, however, to succed as a dramatist, and undeterred by his previous failure he produced in 1838 and the two following years three plays which have kept the stage ever since "The Lady of Lyons," "Richelieu," and " Money." By the death of his mother in 1843 he became the possessor of Knebworth and large estates, and altered his surname to Bulwer-Lytton in accordance with her will; but he continued his literary labours with unabated vigour, publishing "Night and Morning" in 1841;

Zanoni" in 1842; "The Last of the Barons" in 1843; "Lucretia, or the Children of the Night," in 1847; and "Harold, the Last of the Saxon Kings," in 1848. In the latter year he published anonymously in Blackwood's Magazine a work written in an entirely different style to that of his previous novels, entitled "The Caxtons," and not until it had made a reputation did he acknowledge the authorship. He continued to work with success the new vein he had struck, and followed up "The Caxtons" with "My Novel" in 1853, and "What will He do with it?" in 1858. He returned to Parliament in 1852, and now sat on the Conservative side. He was colonial secretary under Lord Derby from 1858 to 1859, and was raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton in 1866. In 1862 he contributed "A Strange Story," to Charles Dickens' All the Year Round, and he afterwards published anonymously two very successful stories, entitled "The Coming Race" and "The Parisians." His last novel, "Kenelm Chillingly," was written almost upon his deathbed, and he was engaged in correcting the proofs only two days before his death, which took place at Torquay, 18th January, 1873. In addition to the works already enumerated, Lytton was the author of brilliant superficial essays on historical subjects, and a host of minor productions, while he made earnest and persistent efforts to take rank as a poet. Ignoring his juvenile productions, he published, as his first serious effort in original verse, "The New Timon," a satire, in 1845; "King Arthur," a romantic epic, in 1849, upon which he declared he would base his best hopes of fame; "St. Stephen's" in 1860; the "Lost Tales of Miletus" in 1866; and a translation of Horace's "Odes" in 1869. In spite of his own opinion of the merits of his works, it is generally admitted that he has failed as a poet, and it is only as novelist that he has any chance of being remembered.

M is the nasal sonant letter of the labial series (or in the old-fashioned nomenclature it is one of the "liquids," l, m, n, r). It differs from b, the mute sonant of the same series, in that the veil of the soft palate is dropped for m while it is closed for b, and the m-current is thus allowed free entry to the nasal cavity, giving a sonorous tone almost akin to a vowel-tone. It is found that all languages with m have also b and p, its mute and surd correlatives. M was almost inaudible in Latin as a termination, in which form it is of such very frequent occurrence in that language, that Verrius Flaccus once proposed to use a special character for this silent m-ending. The earliest form of the letter M in the Roman alphabet was MW(with five strokes), which is the original form of the Greek M as found among the carly Greek colonies of Sicily, whence the Romans derived their literary civilization.

1. M is interchanged with n. Thus m, at the end of Latin cases and tenses, is generally represented by an n in Greek. Similarly the German dative ihm and accusative ihn have been confounded in the English him, which is at once dative and accusative. The German boden, busen, besen, faden, are in English bottom, bosom, besom (broom), fathom; and mon, ton, son, are the French equivalents for the Latin meum, tuum, suum.

2. M with b. Thus in Latin hiems coexists with hibernus, fama with fabula, &c. Marble comes from Latin marmor, &c. M has a great affinity for b, as climb, lamb, &c., and often drags it in, as in limb (properly lim), number (from Latin numerus), &c.

3. M with p. Hence the Greek forms omma, tetummai, &c., for opma, tetupmai, &c. The Greek molubdos is in Latin plumbum.

4. M with v. This is particularly the case in the Welsh language. The Latin amnis is believed to be identical with the Welsh Afon, pronounced Avon. The Latin language has promulgare, apparently for provulgare. Compare also himmel, heaven; immer, ever.

5. M with w probably. This interchange follows easily from the last, and is a natural step towards the next. The German mit seems to be identical with our own with, and their longer preposition wider is to mit or with precisely as the Latin contra to con.

6. M disappearing. This appears to have been the case even at the beginning of words. Compare the Greek mechris with achris, the Latin manus with the Teutonic hand, &c. At the end of words, at least, the loss of an m is very common, particularly after o. Thus the Greek and Latin verb often has the first person ending in ō where analogy would lead to om: tupto, scribo. Compare the words sum, inquam, besides the other tenses scribebam, scribam. In Latin all the adverbs ending in o signifying motion to, appear to have lost an m-viz. quo, eo, &c. Hence adeo, quoad, occur in conjunction with a preposition (ad) which elsewhere requires an accusative. Again an m has been lost in posted, anteū, postilla, &c.; compare postquam, antequam, &c. In English we have lost it from five (Gothic fimf) and soft (Teutonic samft, German sanft); and, as in the last example, it is often weakened to n, as ant for emmet, count for comte, noun for nom (Lat. nomen), account for accompt, &c.

As an abbreviation M. serves in music for mezzo, half; mano, hand; M.M. Maelzel's Metronome, &c.; in commerce for month, as M/d, M/s, month's date, month's sight, or for thousand, as 50/m, 50,000; m/c is metallic currency. For other examples see ABBREVIATION.

MAB'USE or MAUBEUGE, JOHN. This eminent early painter, whose proper name was John Gossaert, was born at Maubeuge in Hainault, in 1470, and studied much in Italy. The finest specimen of this painter, perhaps, is the "Adoration of the Magi" at Castle Howard. He died in 1532.

MAC or M', the Gaelic word for son. It is often used as a prefix to Scotch and in a less degree for Irish names, but in many cases it has of late years become incorporated with the name itself, as in Mackenzie, Macintosh, and Macaulay. It is probably allied to the Gothic word magus, a son, a boy, and its root is generally believed to be the Sanskrit mah, to grow.

MACAD'AM, JOHN LOUDON, the inventor of the method of road-making known as the macadamized, was born at Ayr, 21st September, 1756. In middle life he was appointed a road trustee in Scotland, and thus was first led to turn his attention to the condition of roads in general, which as then constructed were for the most part very bad, being at once loose, rough, and perishable, and very costly to repair. By many years of careful observation and study he discovered the method since called after his name. It consists in raising the surface of the ground on the track of the intended road slightly above the adjoining land, forming drains alongside of it, and scattering over the surface a series of thin layers of hard stone, broken into angular fragments of a nearly cubical shape and as nearly as possible of the same size, no piece being of a greater weight than 6 ounces, and stones of from 1 to 2 ounces being chosen where possible. Each layer of broken stone is gradually consolidated by the traffic passing over it, and when that process is complete the covering of the road becomes a firm solid platform, nearly impervious to water, and durable in proportion to the hardness of the stone of which it is made. Macadam first published an account of his method in 1811, in a paper addressed to Parliament, and he afterwards issued a treatise on roadmaking, which ran through numerous editions and was translated into several foreign languages. In 1815 he was appointed general surveyor of the roads in the Bristol district, and his success was such that he was afterwards made surveyor of the metropolitan roads, and received a gift of £10,000 from the state. He was also offered the honour of knighthood, but at his own request this was conferred upon one of his sons instead. He died at Moffat, Dumfriesshire, 26th November, 1836.

MACA'O, a Portuguese possession in China, now chiefly noted for its gambling houses, is situated at the southern extremity of the estuary of the Choo Kiang, or Canton River, about 80 miles from Canton by the river. The population is about 75,000, of whom 10,000 are Europeans. The town is built on a peninsula of the island of Heong-shan, which is 2 miles in length by less than a mile in breadth, and is connected with the island by a narrow, low, and sandy isthmus, forming a landlocked inner harbour, 12 miles in circuit.

Macao itself stands on several declivities, the shore being lined on the outer side by an embanked parade and a terrace of white houses, above which Chinese and European residences are curiously intermingled; but the mass of buildings, chiefly Chinese, are on an inner slope. Both harbours are within the vortex of typhoons, and suffer greatly from them. The climate is, however, very salubrious, and during the monopoly of the East India Company it was a favourite place of resort for Englishmen from India. The principal

MACARONI.

assistance against pirates. In 1863 the payment of this tribute was rescinded, and the land conceded by treaty to Portugal; but jurisdiction over the Chinese inhabitants was retained. Tradition reports that in a cave in this town Camoens wrote the greater part of the "Lusiad." MAC'AQUE (Macacus) is a genus of monkeys nearly allied to the GUENON (Cercopithecus). In the Macaques the body is stouter than in the Guenons, the head larger in proportion, the limbs more muscular, and the tail shorter. The muzzle is heavy; the superciliary ridge is boldly prominent, and the forehead is flattened; the callosities are large, and mostly surrounded by a space of naked skin. There are ample cheek-pouches, and a laryngeal sac is generally present. The last molar of the lower jaw has a fifth tubercle, and the molars are broad. The hind limbs are longer than the fore limbs. The tail is variable; in some species it is of considerable length, and these in general form approximate towards the Guenons. In others the tail is short and slender. The Macaques inhabit the forests, living in troops, and are remarkable for boldness and activity. Emboldened by tolerance, they become very audacious, pillaging the gardens and the fields of grain; and their rapacity is seconded by address and cunning.

The Common Macaque (Macacus cynomolgus) inhabits Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and many of the islands in the Malay Archipelago. It is a large, robust monkey, with short limbs and a long tail. It becomes very savage and brutal when adult. The colour of the upper parts of the body and the outer surface of the limbs is greenish-brown, while the lower surface and the inside of the limbs are grayish-white, and the tail blackish. The species is common in menageries. The Bonnet Monkey (Macacus radiatus) is another species common in captivity. It is about the

size of a large cat, of a greenish-dun colour on the upper parts and grayish below, and has a long tail. The whole of the face is naked, wrinkled, and of a dingy flesh colour; but the most striking character of the species is to be found in the arrangement of the hair of the crown, which is long and dark-coloured, and instead of standing erect spreads in all directions like rays proceeding from a common centre, lying upon the surface of the head in the same way as the hair of a scalp wig. It is common in some parts of India. Other common Macaques are the RHESUS MONKEY (Macacus rhesus), the WANDEROO (Macacus silenus), and the BARBARY APE or Magot (Macacus sylvanus).

MACARO'NI, a food product made of wheat flour in the shape of pipes. The manufacture is carried on chiefly in Italy (it was formerly peculiar to Genoa alone), but also at Marseilles and one or two other places in the south of France. Vermicelli is made of the same material, but in smaller rolls. Only the hard sorts of wheat, which contain a large proportion of gluten, are applicable to the manufacture. It is first ground into a coarse meal, and the bran being removed, it is called Semola. The flour is then worked up into dough with water, and forced through gauges, as in pipe-drawing, according to the size required. For the Italian pastes which are now so much used for soups, the dough is simply rolled out into thin sheets and cut into various shapes by means of stamps. Macaroni is now much used in England for puddings (if it is made of the best wheat it should swell considerably, and become quite soft, but not break or burst in boiling), and also for making a favourite dish of macaroni and cheese. Both macaroni and semola are prepared in the greatest perfection in Naples, where they form the favourite dish of all classes, and the principal food of the bulk of the population.

MACARONI.

MACARO'NI was in the last part of the eighteenth century the name for a dandy, and was adopted by some young bloods who had travelled in Italy and had brought home the Italian dish of that name, which they introduced at their fashionable entertainments. The vice, insolence, and frivolity of these Macaronis centring round the gardens of Vauxhall and Ranelagh serve as bases for the fictions of the period, and certainly have never been surpassed in England. The term is preserved in the original verses of "Yankee Doodle," who

"Stuck a feather in his cap and called him Macaroni."

MACARO'NIC VERSE. AS MACARONI gets its name from the Italian word macarre, to pound up and mix, macaronic is a very appropriate epithet for this kind of verse, invented by the Italian Teofilo Folengo, and first published by him in 1521. It is a mixture of Latin, or dog-Latin, with a native patois. It is susceptible of very absurd effects; Molière has given some magnificently ridiculous examples in his "Médecin malgré lui." The best work on this subject is Delepierre's "Littérature Macaronique" (Paris, 1856).

MACAS SAR or MANKASSAR, the chief town of a Dutch settlement of the same name, on the S. W. peninsula of the island of Celebes, is situated at the mouth of the Goa. The port is free, and the harbour affords good anchorage. The chief exports are rice, sandal wood, ebony, opium, tortoise-shell, gold, spice, coffee, sugar, cocoa, nuts, and edible nests. Cotton, firearms, and spirits are imported from Europe. There are valuable trepang fisheries. The climate is healthy. The population is about 20,000. It was colonized by the Portuguese in 1512, became subject to the Dutch in 1710, and was made a free port in 1846. The harbour is defended by Fort Rotterdam, whose ancient and irregular batteries descend to the sea-line. Its trade with China is considerable and direct.

MACASSAR STRAIT, 300 miles long, and from 60 to 240 miles broad, separates the islands of Celebes and Borneo. The western side is much frequented by vessels bound to China late in the season.

MACAU ́LAY, THOMAS BABINGTON, LORD MACAULAY, historian, poet, man of letters, and statesman, was born 25th October, 1800, at Rothley Temple, in Leicestershire. He was the son of Zachary Macaulay, a wealthy merchant, whose indefatigable devotion to the cause of the emancipation of the negro was rewarded after his death by a tomb in Westminster Abbey. After the usual course of instruction under a private tutor, he was sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, where his remarkable mental powers immediately attracted notice, and served to gain | for him a fellowship which was afterwards of great service. Destined for the law, he was next entered at Lincoln's Inn. In 1826 he was called to the bar, but he thenceforth virtually abandoned the legal profession.

In the preceding year (1825) his essay on Milton had appeared in the Edinburgh Review. Its brilliant style, solid criticism, and extensive information produced an instantaneous impression that a new and superior luminary had risen upon the literary horizon. This essay was the first of a series which was continued for fifteen years with constantly increasing excellence. The most able and interesting are those on Milton, Addison, Hallam, Pitt, Bacon, Byron, Chatham, Frederick the Great, Johnson, and Gladstone.

A warm partisan of pure Whig principles, which colour all his writings and influence his estimates of the men and deeds of the past, he was called at a comparatively early age to play an important part in the political world. He entered Parliament in 1830 as member for Calne, and participated in the violent debates which attended the introduction of the celebrated Reform Bill. His speeches were characterized by forcible reasoning and felicitous

MACAULAY.

illustration, and he defended Earl Grey's measures with so much vigour and effect that he was offered the secretaryship of the Board of Control. In 1832 he was returned to the reformed House of Commons for the important borough of Leeds. Two years later he resigned his seat to proceed on a mission to Calcutta, where, as member of the Council and president of the Legislative Council (1834), he carried out numerous reforms in the Indian laws. In the face of a bitter and unscrupulous opposition, he passed an Act which submitted to the jurisdiction of the local courts the civil affairs of the English scattered throughout India, and consolidated various heterogeneous statutes into a harmonious whole, which was known as the Macaulay Code.

Soon after his return to England (1839) Lord Melbourne conferred upon him the post of secretary at war, which he held until the downfall of the Whig ministry in 1841. In 1840 he had been returned to Parliament by the electors of Edinburgh. He continued to represent the Scottish capital until 1847, when he was unseated on account of the liberal vote which he had given in favour of the Maynooth College endowment. Macaulay was keenly sensible of the injustice done him, and retired for a time from Parliament to devote himself to his favourite studies. At the instance of Lord John Russell, however, he held the office of quartermaster-general, which he had accepted in 1846, with a seat in the Privy Council, until 1848. In the latter year he was unanimously elected Lord Rector of Glasgow University; and in 1852 Edinburgh again returned him to Parliament, without the slightest solicitation on bis part, or without his even having promised to accept the office if he were elected.

Notwithstanding his parliamentary and official labours, Macaulay had found time to prepare his "History of England," the work by which he is best known, the first volume of which appeared in 1848. Blending in his narrative traits, pictures, allusions, biographical sketches, and even classical quotations, he troubled himself but little, as he said in his preface, about what is called the dignity of history, so long as he succeeded in conveying to his readers an exact knowledge of the public and private life of their ancestors. Nor did he pretend to absolute inpartiality. He could not but profess for the heroes of liberty, for the patriots who had bled and suffered that England's freedom might be established on an eternal basis, that earnest admiration which he felt, and he lauded their achievements as warmly as he denounced the tyranny cr bigotry of their oppressors. His History, therefore, his not escaped the attacks of political critics, and Tey writers have laboured to impugn many of his conclusions It cannot be said, however, that he has been convicted of misrepresentation except in two instances; and even his warmest admirers must admit that he has failed to do justice to the memory and fame of William Penn and John, duke of Marlborough.

The gradual decline of his health, and the immense research necessitated by a historical work conducted on such novel principles and laid out on so elaborate a scale, prevented Macaulay from continuing his enterprise with any great rapidity. It was not until 1855 that the third and fourth volumes of his History appeared, and these only carried the reader down to the peace of Ryswick in 1697.

As a poet, Macaulay's fame will rest on his "Lays of Ancient Rome," his “Armada,” “Ivry,” “Naseby," and "Moncontour." In other departments of poetry he would probably have failed through his very affluence and prodigality; his prize poems and some of his early writings show that, like Tarpeia, the weight of his golden spis would have crushed him. But the essence of the ballad, as an accomplished critic remarks, is simplicity—simplicity not inconsistent with the richest word-painting. The vivida ris-the life, force, movement-conspicuous in all