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LUTHER.

sixty-second year, his health began to succumb. On the 23rd of January, 1546, he repaired to Eisleben to effect, if he could, a reconciliation between the counts of Mansfeldt. In this labour of love he succeeded-a fitting conclusion to his great and glorious career. On the 17th of February he complained of severe ailments in the chest, and became so ill that a conviction of speedy death forced itself upon his mind. He passed an uneasy night, and on the following day gradually sank. "Friends, I am dying," he said to the anxious faces that thronged his chamber; "I shall remain with you at Eisleben." He repeated fervently the prayer, "Into thy hands I commit my soul; thou hast redeemed me, O God of truth!" "Reverend father,” said his physician, “do you die steadfast in the faith that you have taught?" Not a doubt flung its shadow upon his soul in that supreme moment, and in a tone of indescribable earnestness, he answered, "Yes." He then fell asleep, and in a few minutes, breathing one deep sigh, surrendered his spirit to God. His remains were conveyed in a leaden coffin to Wittenberg, and interred on the 22nd of February with the highest honours. A most elaborate memorial to him and his principal fellowworkers was erected at Worms in 1868.

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Luther's face," says Carlyle, "is to me expressive of him; in Kranach's best portraits I find the true Luther. A rude plebeian face, with its huge crag-like brows and bones, the emblem of rugged energy; at first, almost a repulsive face. Yet in the eyes especially there is a wild, silent sorrow; an unnameable melancholy, the element of all fine and gentle affections; giving to the rest the true stamp of nobleness. Laughter was in this Luther; but tears also were there. Tears also were appointed him; tears and hard toil. The basis of his life was sadness, earnestness. In his later days, after all triumphs and victories, he expresses himself heartily weary of living; he considers that God alone can and will regulate the course things are taking, and that perhaps the day of judgment is not far. As for him, he longs for one thing-that God would release him from his labour, and let him depart and be at rest. They understand little of the man who cite this in discredit of him! I will call this Luther a true, great man: great in intellect, in courage, affection, and integrity; one of the most lovable and precious men. Great, not as a hewn obelisk, but as an alpine mountain-so simple, honest, spontaneous, not setting up to be great at all; there for quite another purpose than being great! Oh, yes! unsubduable granite, piercing far and wide into the heavens; yet in the clefts of it fountains, green beautiful valleys, with flowers! A right spiritual hero and prophet; once more, a true son of nature and fact, for whom these centuries, and many that are to come yet, will be thankful to heaven!"

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Luther's character had in it much of the heroic. was not to be cowed by dangers, not to be daunted by obstacles; these to his ardent spirit were but incentives which stimulated him to greater efforts. He was fond of the clash and clang of battle. It was in moments of extreme peril that he felt all the depth and power of his great soul, and knew of what grand deeds he was capable. At the first sound of conflict his spirit rushed to arms, "eager for the fray." The blows he dealt were heavy, crushing, irresistible, for he was held back by no false sentiment; and when a sham was to be exposed, or a falsehood destroyed, his arm had a giant's might. Yet his was a heart of infinite tenderness, and in his family affections and his friendships he showed himself generous, forbearing, loyal. It is true the gold was not without alloy. There was a certain ruggedness about his nature which could not but offend the dilettante lovers of rose-water revolutions;" but take him for all in all, and it may well be doubted whether the last nineteen centuries have seen a nobler man. For authorities, consult "Luther's Works," of which the

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best editions are those of Wittenberg, in nineteen vols, folio, with a life of Luther by Melanchthon (1539-58); Walch's edition, in twenty-four vols. 4to (1740-53), re-issued with enlargements, in sixty-seven vols., Ger. (1826-57), and twenty-three vols., Lat. (1829-61); and the Frankfurt edition, recently issued at the expense of the Prussian government; D'Aubigné's "History of the Reformation" (English translation, 1845-47); Ranke's "History of the Reformation" (English translation, 1845-47); Secbohm's "Era of the Protestant Revolution" (1877). Among the lives of Luther may be mentioned those of Mathesius (1566), Michelet (English translation, 1846 and 1862), Croly (1857), and lastly, that of Julius Köstlin (two vols, 1875). A popular edition of the last, abridged and illustrated, was issued in one vol. in connection with the Luther festival held in Germany in 1883, and an English translation appeared in London in 1884.

LUTHERANS, a term originally applied by the Roman Catholics to those who sided with the reformers of the săteenth century, but which was afterwards accepted as a title by that section of Protestants who adopted the principles of Luther, in opposition alike to the Roman Catholics, the Swiss Reformers, and the numerous sects which afterwards arose. During the lifetime of Luther serioas controversies arose as to the definitions of the terms law at 1 gospel, and as to the doctrine of the Real Presence; wi after his death, other conflicts arose, which ended in the separation of the Protestants into two great divisions, known respectively as the Lutheran and the Reformed. Luther's friend and lieutenant, Melanchthon, though he remains CT good terms with the reformer until his death, yet differed with him concerning the doctrine of consubstantiation, and inclined more towards the teaching of Calvin, in wiki .* was followed by a large number of the adherents of *?* Reformation. Others, more Lutheran than Luther hius, clung with desperate tenacity to the more extreme expres sions and teachings of the reformer, which they regarded as a precious deposit left in their charge, to be defaniel and preserved inviolate against all comers. The University of Jena formed the headquarters of this party, Wittendenz being the centre of the Philippists, or Crypto-Calvinists, as the followers of Melanchthon were called. Notwithstanding the obvious evils arising from disunion in the face i an active and determined enemy, few controversies be been conducted with more bitterness than the sacramen tarian controversy, and at one time it seemed as if Protestantism was about to fall to pieces from internal dis ri alone. Numerous theological conferences were held with view of settling the dispute and arriving at some con 1) ♬ form of expression which should unite all parties, but the logians as a class are a somewhat stiff-necked race, at å when in 1577, after much discussion and negotiation, the

Form of Concord" was published, it was accepted '! some of the Lutheran churches, first adopted and the rejected by some others, and rejected from the outset by many. Those who accepted it became known as t Lutheran churches, while those who rejected it becare, for the most part, either Reformed or Calvinist. Mary attempts were made during the seventeenth century to unite the two sections of Reformed and Lutheran with t success; but at the beginning of the nineteenth century th matter was taken in hand by the civil governments of Germany, and the union of the two churches was effect! in Prussia and Nassau in 1817, in Hesse in 1823, and a Anhalt-Dessau in 1827. The name taken was that of the United Evangelical Church, those who refused to consent and separated themselves taking the title of the Old Lutherans For a time the separatists were treated with considerab severity by the different governments, but ultimately toler tion prevailed, and the Old Lutherans have since formed a recognized ecclesiastical body in Prussia.

In theology the Lutheran churches recognize the supreme

LUTIDINE.

authority of the Bible, but their chief doctrinal standard is and in the AUGSBURG CONFESSION, already noticed in this work. In opposition to the Calvinistic churches, the Lutherans maintain the doctrine of consubstantiation, and they retain in their public worship the use of vestments, pictures, images, the form of exorcism in baptism, and other practices similar to those of the Roman Catholic Church, at which are rejected by the majority of Protestants elsewhere. In Denmark and Sweden there are bishops pointed in the Lutheran churches, but in most other paces the civil power is recognized as the supreme authorty, the affairs of the churches being conducted by means fasistories composed of ministers and laymen, who are inted by the government.

LU TIDINE, an organic base obtained from bone oil. It is a colourless oil, soluble in water, having a specific gravity of 0-9467, and boiling at 154° C. (309° Fahr.) Its a strong base, forming numerous salts, which are crystare and soluble in water.

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LU TON, a town of England, in the county of Bedford, pasantly situated near the west bank of the river Lea, at far from its source, 14 miles south by east from Bed, and 32 from London by the Great Northern Railway. It is the chief seat of the straw-plait and bonnet manuacture in the United Kingdom, and on this account the lation increased from 7740 in 1841 to 17,821 in 11, and to 23,960 in 1881. The number is subject to futation, in consequence of the changes of fashion causpression er revival in the trade. The proportion of sto males is at least five to three. The factories in the manufacture is carried on are of great size. Tore are a town-hall, corn exchange, court-house, and a The parish church is an interesting specimen #le arcitecture, with a square embattled tower surat the angles by hexagonal pinnacles, and a hand*ey decorated west door: the interior contains, besides painted windows, a curiously carved font, and some monuments. It is of the fourteenth century, and restal in 1865.

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LUT TERWORTH, a small market-town of England, the centy of and 14 miles S.S.W. of Leicester, and 94 fra London. The church, a large handsome buildrestored in 1870, contains a portrait of its famous , the reformer Wyclif (who died here in 1384), and 17at of his pulpit. In 1415 the Council of Constance red to gratify their rage against his memory by Es remains to be disinterred and cast upon a This disgraceful sentence was carried into effect; benes of Wyclif being taken up were burned, and be thrown into the Swift. Thus," as Fuller has tely expressed it, "this brook (the Swift) has conThis ashes into Aven, Avon into Severn, Severn into w seas, they into the main ocean; and thus the Af Wyclif are the emblem of his doctrine, which **ersed all the world over." The town is on the a thittary of the Avon.

LUT ZEN, in Germany, a small town in Prussian ay, the government of Merseburg, 9 miles south* Merseburg, on the Elster River Canal. The popuHalat 3000. It contains a church and a small Lo public buildings of importance, nor any ts. Its interest is purely historical, and derived great battles of which the neighbouring plain has Le scene. A recent writer describes this plain as a • erase, studded with villages and tall ungainly church bere and there, bedded in the soil, is one of those erafimal boulders of dark red granite which the glaciers arted hither, according to modern belief, from distant ata, and which now chiefly serve as landmarks; far ath the first blue outlines of the Erzgebirge faintly Ives. This vast level has been the battlefield of Germany from the earliest historic times. Here,

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LUXEMBURG.

or in the immediate neighbourhood, Henry the Fowler defeated the Huns in 934. Here were fought the two battles of Leipzig or Breitenfeld, in the Thirty Years' War. Here Gustavus Adolphus fought and died, on the 6th of November, 1632, for the great cause of civil and religious liberty. And here Napoleon was repulsed by the allied armies in 1813. Not an ear of corn is pure from the blood of men.

"Lützen," says Mr. Herman Merivale, "is a thoroughly old-fashioned, forgotten-looking town, with walls and fosse partially preserved, and the open country on all sides extending close up to them. It has now about 500 houses, and is traditionally reported to have been more considerable in olden times." About three-quarters of a mile beyond the town, on the Leipzig road, stands a rough mass of porphyritic stone-the Schwedenstein or Swede's stone. It commemorates the death of the great Protestant hero, Gustavus Adolphus, who fell close to the spot where it stands. It bears the inscription "G. A., 1632," is surrounded with a little shrubbery and gravel walk, and surmounted by a Gothic arch of cast iron.

The battle in which the Swede king fell may be said to have secured the liberties of Protestant Germany, while it crushed the pretensions of Austria to the supremacy of Europe. The Swedish, or rather allied army, for it included English, Scotch, and Germans in its ranks, consisted of about 25,000 men; the Imperialists, under Wallenstein, duke of Friedland, numbered 20,000, while at Halle, 16 miles to the north-west, lay Pappenheim with 16,000 men, the greater portion of whom he brought upon the field in the course of the struggle. The attack was delivered by the Swedes about eleven o'clock, and the fight continued with varying fortune until night closed over the conquerors and the conquered. Both sides fought desperately, but the superior discipline and religious enthusiasm of the Swedes prevailed, and the Austrian army was almost annihilated.

Gustavus was slain early in the battle. Wounded in the shoulder by an Austrian trooper, he fell from his horse with a groan, and his page, Lobelfing, being unable to lift him again on his charger, he lay exposed to the enemy's cuirassiers. Some of these riding up fired a pistol through the hero's head, and terminated his short but glorious career in the thirty-ninth year of his age. His memory is still very much cherished in Germany.

The second great battle of Lützen was fought in 1813, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon in person, and the allies, under the Emperor Alexander, Blücher, Morean, and Schwartzenberg. Napoleon, after a desperate struggle, was compelled to retreat.

LUXEMBURG, formerly a grand-duchy in the Netherlands, but now divided between Holland and Belgium, is bounded E. by Prussia, N. by Liège, W. by Namur, and S. by France. DUTCH LUXEMBURG, which gives the King of Holland the title of grand-duke, and conferred on him a vote in the old Germanic Confederation, lies east of Belgian Luxemburg, and has an area of 998 square miles, with a population in 1880 of 209,570. BELGIAN LUXEM BURG is the largest and more western part of the former grand-duchy; it has an area of 1690 square miles, with a population in 1883 of 211,165. The principal rivers of Luxemburg are the Moselle, the Sûre, and the Our, which form the boundary between Dutch Luxemburg aud Prussia; the Elze or Alzette, a feeder of the Sûre; the Semois, which rises near Arlon, and flows west into the Maas; the Ourthe, which rises near Bastogne, and falls into the Maas near Liège; the Lesse, which rises near Neufchâteau, and falls into the Maas near Dinant.

Luxemburg is crossed from south-west to north-east by a range of high ground, part of the Ardennes, which separates the valley of the Maas from that of the Moselle. The soil of this elevated region is calcareous, and is principally occupied as pasturage. The lower lands are very produc

LUXOR

tive, and yield abundant harvests of wheat, rye, flax, hemp. inangel-wurzel, &c. Such of the high lands as are tilled rarely yield anything but rye, oats, and potatoes. Large forests are found in many districts. Agriculture is in rather a backward state. The vine is cultivated on the banks of the Moselle and the Sûre. The quality of the wine is inferior. In Dutch Luxemburg there are a great number of distilleries and some iron-works. Horses, horned cattle, swine, and sheep are numerous. The former are much prized for agricultural and military purposes. The latter are exported in large numbers. In the Belgian province there are iron-works, slate quarries, potteries, tanneries, cloth and paper mills. Iron and lead mines are worked; copper is also found.

Up to 1866 Dutch Luxemburg was connected with the old Germanic Confederation, and in consequence of this the Federal fortress in the city of Luxemburg, which was of immense strength, was garrisoned by a large Prussian force. After the dissolution of the Germanic Confederation, subsequent to the battle of Sadowa, the King of Holland privately sold the territory to the Emperor of the French; but the Prussians, who wished it to be annexed to the North German Confederation, and very strongly objected to France obtaining possession of such a strong fortress close to their country, declined to evacuate the city, and at one time a war on the subject between France and Prussia seemed imminent. This was fortunately averted by a conference of the great European powers, which took place in London, and at which it was agreed that the sale to France should be ignored, that the Prussians should retire, and that in future the territory should be strictly and perpetually neutral, although in other respects under the King of Holland. The fortress has since been dismantled.

LUXEMBURG, the capital of Dutch Luxemburg, stands partly on level ground on the banks of the Alzette, and partly on a scarped rock, 200 feet high, which is reached by flights of steps and zigzag streets. The grandeur of the scene is considerably enhanced by the vast viaducts of the railways to Trèves and Diekirch, and the colossal Petrus viaduct, which spans the ravine between the railway station and the south side of the Oberstadt. The fortress on this rock was regarded as perhaps the strongest place in Europe after Gibraltar. The fortifications were condemned to demolition in 1867, but most have been left standing on account of the great expense attending their removal. It has manufactures of linen, gloves, cotton, leather, &c, a public library, athenæum, and museum. The population is about 16,000.

LUXOR. See THEBES.

LUXUL'LIANITE is a variety of granite in which the mica is replaced by schorl or tourmaline. This rock consists of a ground mass of black schorl, in which are embedded grains of quartz and large crystals of orthoclase. It is a highly ornamental stone, and takes a good polish; from it the sarcophagus of the late Duke of Wellington is made. The stone occurs in the vicinity of Luxullian, Cornwall; hence the name, but it has not been found there in situ.

LUZERN'. See LUCERNE.

LUZON', the largest and most northerly of the Philippine Islands, is of a very irregular form, and with shores rocky and deeply indented. It is about 450 miles long by 10 to 140 broad. The interior is occupied by mountains, which attain 6000 or 7000 feet elevation, and are covered with luxuriant forests, producing useful and ornamental woods. There are many fine valleys and rich plains; and among the numerous valuable products are rice and tobacco, extensively grown; indigo, coffee, cocoa, sugar, and wax; also gold, iron, copper, and rock-salt. There are many volcanoes and volcanic products, but granite and the old slates and tertiary formations have been observed to occur, and coal has also been found. The capital is

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LYCHNIS.

Manilla. About 2,500,000 of the people, inhabiting an area of about 30,000 square miles, are subject to Spain. The whole area is 42,794 square miles. The population is about 4,000,000.

LYCABET TUS (Gr. Lukabéttos), a mountain of the range of Pentelicus (Pentelikos), which forms a striking feature in the view from Athens, coming down close to the north-east of the city, on the left of the Marathon Road. [See Plate ATHENS.] The name is sometimes erroneously given to the small hill north of the Pnyx (Paux).

LYCÆ NIDÆ. See BUTTERFLIES, HAIRSTREAK. LYCAN'THROPY (Gr. lukos, a wolf, and anthropos, a man), a term used to indicate the belief that men in certain circumstances are transformed into wolves or other animals. This belief can be traced back to the most remote periods, and it is found in full strength among most savage peoples, and as a lingering, decaying tradition in many civilized nations at the present day. During the middle ages, and so late as the beginning of the seventeenth century, it was a fixed belief, even among educated people, that certain witches or wizards were able at will, by the use of a certain ointment, girdle, or charm, to transform themselves into wolves, and that it was their practice to do so in order that they might feast upon human flesh. Not only so, bat many persons were arrested on the charge of having com mitted this crime, and after trial were executed for the offence. As in the case of witchcraft, it was not unconmon for those arrested to plead guilty, and to give to te court minute accounts of their practices, a circumstance which naturally confirmed the popular belief on this subject. It seems also evident, from the records of these trials, that in some instances the persons arrested evidently believed in their own powers, and under the delusion that they had become wolves had been really guilty of murder and cannibalism. Where this belief prevailed and was accepted without question it is perhaps not very wonderful that insanity should take the form of wolf-madness, or that it should at times assume the form of an epidemic in certain districts, diffusing terror far and wide. It is said that in the early part of the seventeenth century multitudes in the Jura were attacked by the hallucination, and some 600 people were executed on their own confession. It has been observed in those countries of Europe where the beef still lingers among the peasantry, that where wolves preval men are still regarded as changing themselves into this animal; but in other nations the transformation is believed to take place into that of the animal most dreaded, and men are supposed to become bears, tigers, serpents, liers, leopards, &c. See Barny Gould's "Book of Were Wolves " (London, 1865), and Moncure D. Conway's " Demondigy and Devil Lore," vol. i. (London, 1879).

LYCA'ON. See HUNTING DOG, CAPE. LYCE'UM (Gr. Lukeion, so called from its beg close to the temple of the god Apollón Lukeins), Greek antiquity, a famous academy or school situated upon the bank of the Ilissus at Athens. It consisted several porticoes and numerous open and covered walks, where Aristotle instructed his scholars in the principles of philosophy and logic. As they walked there dally not i the hour of anointing, they received the name of Peripatetics. In modern usage the term is sometimes used for an educational establishment, as in the case of the French Lycées.

LYCH'NIS, a genus of plants belonging to the order Caryophyllaceae, and to the suborder Sileneæ. Lychnis Chalcedonica (the scarlet lychnis) produces scarlet, rosecoloured, or white flowers, and is a great favourite in our gardens. Lychnis grandiflora has large beauiful scarit flowers, and is a native of China and Japan. Lychnis Flos-cuculi (ragged Robin) has rose-coloured petals, and is an abundant plant in the moist meadows and pastures of Great Britain, as well as the whole of Europe. Lychnis

LYCIA.

repertina (white campion) is a common plant in the Ledge-banks of Europe. This and Lychnis diurna (red campion) are sometimes regarded as varieties, and then amed Lychnis dioica.

LY CIA, an ancient province of Asia Minor, was beaded on the N. by Phrygia, on the E. by Pamphylia, en the W. by Caria, and on the S. by the Mediterranean Sea. The interior was almost entirely unknown till the discoveries of Sir C. Fellows, which have corrected the neons representations of the maps. The coast is borred by lofty mountains, but there are no high mountains E the interior. The Xanthus, which has been represented as a small stream, is a river of considerable length, flowing the mountains in the north of Lycia; and the whole of the interior is a fertile plain, surrounded by mountains, and drained by the Xanthus.

That Lycia was early colonized by the Greek nation is dent, not only from the account of Herodotus, but also many other Lycian traditions, as well as from the tip of Apollo, which was spread over the country. Laathus was a Cretan settlement. The chief temple of Apio was at Patara.

In the time of Strabo the Lycians had a kind of federconsisting of twenty-three cities, which sent deputies ar assembly, in which a governor was chosen for the te of Lycia, as well as judges and inferior magistrates. A Latters relating to the government of the country were sed in this assembly. The six principal cities, Latias, Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra, and Tlos, had retes each, other cities two votes each, and the reader only one each. In consequence of dissensions www the different cities this constitution was abolished Emperor Claudius, and the country was united to ince of Pamphylia.

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I entry is now well inhabited, chiefly by Turks, "ay of whom lead a life half settled and half nomadic; they are distinguished by their excellent character. Most them are farmers or herdsmen; trade is chiefly carried Armenians and Greeks, who live in the sea towns, - the greater portion of the population of the inland of Almali, which is the largest in Lycia, the populaThat bring about 25,000. The breeding of horses is carried anta a great extent, and herds of many hundreds are often grazing together in the valleys. The only kind is at of which such spirited representations are seen in the t marbles; the head is of Arabic cast, the chest is arge, the feet are remarkably fine and thin, and the as small as in the antique. They are not shod. No of Asia Minor contains such splendid valleys as those Xanthus and the Dolomon Chái. Myrtle, oleander, megranates cover the banks of the rivers; the plains The rivers are well cultivated, and in many places the are inclosed by fences of myrtle and the small prickly d with the orange, the wild olive, the pomegranate, zant green storax, which are most beautifully matted ie by vine, elematis, and many other climbers. The **are covered with large oaks and planes, which supply t timber. The high plain round Almali, which is *** feet above the sea, is one of the largest and best red corn tracts in Asia Minor; its chief produce is ch is the common food for horses. Maize is ed in the valleys and on the coast. The name pied to that part of Anatolia which is opposite to

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LY CIUM was the name given by ancient writers to a e brought chiefly from India, and used to restrain ry and other discharges, and especially in the of ophthalmic inflammation. This substance dered very precious, and was sold in singular Vases, specimens of which may be seen in collections * antiquities, with the name of the drug inscribed of the person who sold it. In 1833 Dr. Royle proved

LYCURGUS.

that this substance was an extract, called Rusot in India, and prepared from the wood or root of various species of Indian Berberis (Barberry), viz. aristata, Lycium, and asiatica. The root-bark of these three species has been made officinal in the Indian Pharmacopoeia. It is tonic, antiperiodic, and diaphoretic, and is valuable in fevers, diarrhoea, and general debility, and also in the form of extract in ophthalmia.

LYCIUM is also the name now given to a genus of SOLANACE.E, of which the species Lycium barbarum is well known under the name of Tea-plant. It grows rapidly, and though rather straggling, is often cultivated; it has small lilac flowers, succeeded by scarlet or orange fruit.

LYCOPODIA CEÆ, a group of CRYPTOGAMIA, chiefly consisting of moss-like plants, inhabiting moors, boggy heaths, and woods in many parts of the world. They never exceed the height or length of 2 or 3 feet, and usually grow prostrate. The spores of Lycopodium clavatum (Plate III. CRYPTOGAMIA, fig. 21) are sprinkled upon pills to prevent their adhesion. Some of the species, especially Lycopodium catharticum, are violent purgatives, and it has been proposed to use others as dyes; but in general they are of little importance to any except the systematic botanist. The large fossils common in the coal measures, and called LEPIDODENDRON, are the relics of an extinct gigantic race of these now pigmy species.

The Lycopodiaceæ are divided into two tribes, Lycopodieæ, with only one kind of spore, and Selaginelleæ, with two kinds of spores. The former contains four genera, of which one is important and native in Britain, Lycopodium; the latter contains two genera, Selaginella, commonly grown in our hothouses, and Isoëtes, a native plant. The Lycopodieæ branch in all directions, the Selagineæ branch in one plane with leaves which are arranged in four rows, and are of different sizes, the upper and lower of smaller leaves than those on the sides. In both adventitious roots are produced. In Lycopodium two or more fibro-vascular bundles are combined in the centre of the stem, and surrounded by a sheath of thin-walled cells, and these by other layers of thick-walled cells. In Selaginella the bundles are quite distinct from one another, and are surrounded by air cavities. In Isoëtes, a genus of aquatic plants with slightly developed stem and grass-like leaves (see Plate III. CRYPTOGAMIA, fig. 19), there is an axial woody body, consisting of short vascular cells with spiral markings.

The spores are contained in capsules called sporangia, which are found in the axils of leaves, and burst when ripe. In Lycopodium, the portion on which the sporangia are placed forms a spike-like receptacle. In the Selaginelleæ, the large spores, which ultimately produce new plants, and the small spores, which fertilize the others, are contained in distinct capsules, macro-sporangia and micro-sporangia.

LYCOPO DIUM, a fine mobile, tasteless, inodorous pale yellow powder consisting of the spores of the Lycopodium clavatum, or common club moss, natural order Lycopodiaceæ. It is very inflammable, and when blown through a candle burns with a rapid bright flame; it is used in theatres to imitate lightning. The names of Witch-meal and Vegetable Sulphur have been applied to it. It is used in pharmacy for rolling round pills to prevent sticking together, also for dusting infants and excoriated surfaces. It is extremely resinous and repellent, and when sprinkled on water, on which it floats, the hand can be dipped into it without wetting it.

LYCO'SIDÆ. See WOLF-SPider.

LYCUR'GUS (Gr. Lukourgos), the great semi-mythical Spartan legislator. The account of him in the largely legendary form in which it has come down to us is that he was the brother of a king of Sparta. His brother died, and the widowed queen, who loved Lycurgus, proposed to him to share the throne with her, and to murder the child

LYDIA.

which would shortly be born. To prevent this crime, and preserve the safety of the state, he consented in appearance, but as soon as the child was born seized upon him, proclaimed him king, and assumed the guardianship. As soon as the government was settled he relinquished his offices to others, and himself travelled over all the known earth, Crete, Asiatic Greece, Egypt, and perhaps India. He is said to have met Homer in Asia Minor. Returning to Sparta with ample knowledge of all forms of laws, he was unanimously invited to give his native city the benefit of his wisdom. He consulted the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, and was encouraged in his task. He remodelled the whole Spartan state, received the cordial approval of the oracle upon his work, and then called the Spartans together, and took an oath from each one that he would alter nothing until his return. This being solemnly sworn to, Lycurgus left Sparta a second time, as if to seek further knowledge; but he never returned. Thus the laws of Sparta, as he meant they should be, were for ever unchangeable. He was believed to have been taken up among the gods, and a temple was built to him in Sparta. The usual date given to Lycurgus is some indefinite period before B.C. 325. For the legislation of Lycurgus see SPARTA.

LYD'IA, an ancient country of Asia Minor, whose boundaries varied at different times. Under the Roman Empire it was bounded on the S. by Caria, from which it was separated by the river Mæander; on the N. by a range of mountains named Sardene, which divided it from Mysia; on the E. by Phrygia; and on the W. by the Ægean, though the tract of country along the coast was more commonly called Ionia. Lydia was intersected by mountain ranges, running from east to west, of which the principal, called Méssogis by Strabo, forms the northern boundary of the valley of the Mæander. Another chain of mountains, named Tmolus, runs parallel to the Messogis, and terminates on the west coast opposite the Island of Chios. A branch of Tmolus, called Sipylus, stretches more to the north-west, towards the towns of Cuma and Phocæa. Lydia is thus divided into two principal valleys: the southern, between Méssogis and Tmolus, through which the Caystrus flows, is of moderate extent; but the northern, between Tmolus and Sardene, watered by the Hermus and its tributaries the Hyllus, Pactólus, and Coganus, forms a considerable plain. The fertility of Lydia and the salubrity of the climate are frequently mentioned by ancient writers. Chishull speaks of the country between Tmolus and Méssogis as a "region inexpressibly delicious."

According to Herodotus, the Lydians were of a common origin with the Carians and Mysians (i. 171).

The early history of Lydia is told by Herodotus (i. 6, &c.), who says that three dynasties ruled in Lydia-the Atyadæ, the Heraclidæ, and the Mermnadæ, from B.C. 716 to 556. The proper history of Lydia begins with the last of these dynasties. The first king of this dynasty was Gyges, and the last was Croesus. The Lydian kingdom had its greatest extent during the reign of Croesus, who subdued all the people of Asia Minor west of the river Halys (Kizil-Ermak), with the exception of the Cilicians and Lycians (Herodot. i. 28). But this empire was overthrown by Cyrus (B.c. 556), and the country became a Persian province. After Alexander's conquests Lydia, with the rest of Western Asia, formed part of the empire of the Seleucida; and on the conquest of Antiochus by the Romans (B.c. 189), it was given to Eumenes, king of Pergamus. On the death of Attalus III. (B.c. 133) it came, with the other dominions of the kings of Pergamus, into the power of the Romans.

The Lydians carried on a large trade, and had abundance of the precious metals. They are said by the Greeks to have been the first people who put a stamp upon gold and silver, and were notorious for the immorality of some of their customs.

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The most extraordinary work of art in ancient Lydia was the enormous sepulchral mound of Alyattes, the father of Croesus. It was 1300 feet in width.

The Grecian towns on the coast of Lydia belong to IONIA. The most important of those towns which properly belonged to Lydia were Sardis, called at present Sart, Philadelphia, called at present Allah Shehr, and Thyatira, the modern Arkhissar.

LYD'IAN (from Lydia, a country of Asia Minor), an epithet applied by the Greeks to music which was of a tender and flowing character,

"Softly sweet, in Lydian measure,
Soon he soothed the soul to pleasure."
-Dryden.

The character of this poetry is said to have been striking and animated, yet capable of pathos and melting softness; and it was on this account that Plato banished it from the republic. Some attribute its invention to Amphion, but Pindar states that it was first used at the marriage of Niobe. As a term of Greek music the Lydian mode means the scale of F (our F minor with E, and not E, as the seventh of the scale). Hypo-Lydian was the similar Greek scale from C, and Hyper-Lydian that from B.

LYD'IAN STONE, a silicious rock or impure cryptocrystalline quartz, containing an admixture of alumina, carbon, and oxide of iron; it has probably been produced from argillaceous sandstone or from sandy shale, by a process of baking or metamorphism. It is a hard stone and of a velvet black colour, so that it is used for trying the purity of the precious metals; hence it is often called touchstone. This operation is performed by placing the streak of some test pieces of known fineness alongside of the streak of the alloy under examination; by treating the streaks with nitric acid and noting its action, a close approximation to the fineness of the alloy may be arrived at.

LY'ELL, SIR CHARLES, one of the most distinguished geologists of the nineteenth century, was born at his father's seat near Kirriemuir, in Forfarshire, on 14th November, 1797. He received his early education at a private school at Midhurst, and completed it at Exeter College, Oxford, where he took his bachelor's degree in 1819, obtaining a second-class in classical honours. On leaving the university he studied for a time for the bar, but did not follow that profession long, his tastes having been led by Dr. Buckland's lectures to study geology as a science, and in 1824 he was appointed one of the secretaries of the Geological Society of London-a society of which he was one of the earliest members. After writing various articles on geological subjects, showing a great power of observation and generalization, he issued his magnum opus, "The Principles of Geology," in three successive instalments, published respectively in 1830, 1832, and 1833. The work, afterwards enlarged to four volumes, has passed through several editions, and is still in demand among students of the science. It was subsequently divided into two parts, which were published as distinct books-viz. "The Prin ciples of Geology, or the Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants, as illustrative of Geology;" and secondly, "The Elements of Geology, or the Ancient Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants, as illustrated by its Geological Monuments." The chief feature of the "Principles of Geology" was the success of the first attempt which had ever been made to explain the former changes of the earth's surface by the long-continued operation, through indefinite periods, of causes now in action, even to the accounting for former variations of climate by corresponding variations in the relative distribution of land and sea. This powerful advocacy of the just principle of examining the present in order to restore the past, laid the basis of the present high position and popularity of geology. The voluminous amount of facts that had been patiently and laboriously collected was rendered attractive by Lyell's clear argumentative

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