MATTER.

distinguish the internal world, or mind? How do we distinguish the tree itself from its image in a looking-glass, or in a mirage, dream, or other illusion, seeing that all we know of the tree is a certain group of qualities which may or may not all of them be the same for other men, and are most probably not all of them the same for other animals than ourselves?

We separate the special qualities of matter wherein we find it to differ from mind into two kinds, primary and secondary. The primary qualities are those of Resistance (in which we include weight) and Extension. No purely mental conception-say an emotion of sympathy-can, philosophically be said to have weight or breadth; if such terms are used of it they are so used only as figures of speech. Further, these primary qualities are the same for all men and all animals. Every material object occupies a certain amount of space, and offers resistance to the touch, whatever be the percipient mind. The secondary qualities are those of Taste, Smell, Feeling (as to smoothness, softness, warmth, &c.), Sound, and Colour, and these are very largely mental. If we encounter a group of secondary qualities we are in doubt until we have assured ourselves of the existence of the primaries whether it is a vision or a material object before us. Further, these secondary qualities differ for each individual, and in all probability for various animals. It is hard to think that the sense of smell in dogs, for instance, does not give more complex and accurate perceptions than that in ourselves. We cannot help feeling that we are to the dog in this respect much as a colour-blind man is to a painter; he may distinguish some of the colours, but red and green (in the commonest case of the affliction) are alike to him. In fact, all this class of perceptions depend for their accuracy | and distinctiveness upon the keenness of the percipient mind in the particular quality in question. The limitation just given is abundantly necessary, since some men hear accurately (within the narrow limits to which the human ear is sensible of sound), and at the same time have a very blunted vision, for instance; and so with other perceptions. We further observe that matter differs from mind in definite exertions always producing definite results. If we run our eyes along the lines of a book the words occur in the same order, and appear always the same. But it is not all so with a purely mental state, an idea properly so called; for if we close our eyes and sit perfectly still we can yet fancy we read. We can also re-arrange the words as we please, can imagine them in larger size or in different type, &c., and in fact we are freed from any necessity of movement or any definite order of conceptions.

Thirdly, we may observe that perceptions of material objects always occur in groups. Matter usually affects many senses at once, and often suggests more perceptions than are really present-a fact at the root of many illusions (see on this point the article ILLUSIONS). Now the pure states of mind are single; wherever they are grouped it will be found that they are connected with some material perception, or with the memory of such.

Finally, within broad limits, matter affects all men alike as to its specially material qualities, whereas on the mental side each one is differently affected. We have just seen how great are the diversities, even in the mental perception, of the secondary qualities of matter, but what is here meant is something further. Let several persons who hear clearly listen to a symphony of Beethoven. All will have the perception of sound alike; but what that sound means to them will vary, from the man who hearing it becomes utterly weary after five minutes, to him who, wrapt in unutterable ecstasy, has lost all count of time or earthly things. Here we are dealing with a purely subjective experience. Yet all these men would have, within limits due to each one's keenness of perception, identical perceptions of the shape of the instruments and the number and aspect of the per

MATTHIOLA.

formers. The states of matter may be common to many persons, the states of mind are special to every individual In our ordinary talk, therefore, we not only set apart material objects as a class, but we quite unwarrartably abstract their materiality from all our groups of perceptions caused by them, and assert an absolute existence for this abstraction. There are those who admit freely that there is no redness apart from red things, and that redness is merely a convenient abstraction of the quality red from many objects alike in that particular, and who yet as stoutly assert that beyond and beneath a certain weight, size, taste, smell, feel, and colour, which all mes perceive, there exists an unknown object, an apple, where f these are only the signs by which to know it, but are by no means the apple itself. Apart from the mass of inaccurate reasonings called "common sense," such a ccatention cannot hold water. Every unbiassed mind will have to admit upon consideration that there is nothing in his mind but mental perceptions, and that these form the whole of his knowledge.

How, then, do we acquire this universal belief in the existence of matter, seeing that we are forced to admit we know of nothing but the existence of mind? It is by a special quality of matter not yet named, which Mil has called the permanent possibility of sensation. In the example given above of the tree in the South Sea island, this was vaguely apparent. We believed in the existenc of the tree as apart from any percipient mind, because it was admitted by hypothesis that if there had been a mind present it would have perceived the tree. So with ourselves, we look at a house and go our ways, perfectly well knowing that if we go back to the same place (all things being the same) we shall find the house just as before. Moreover we know (by the special quality of matter as te its likeness of effect on all minds, previously discussed in this article) that if we send some one else, he will also perceive the house. The house is therefore a permanent possibility of sensations, and it is conceived as external to ourselves because we can send others to see it while we are ourselves far away. Our own sensations of matter may cease, but the possibilities of sensation remain, apart frorn us, independent of our will and of our presence. W cannot, by the very nature of our mind, resist the coaclusion that these possibilities of sensation reside in something apart from us, and in something actually existent. The articles MATERIALISM and MIND may be with advan tage referred to in connection with the present article.

The consideration of matter on its physical side, its aggregation in molecules, &c., is dealt with under the articles MOLECULE and ATOMIC THEORY.

MATTERHORN or MONT CERVIN, a mourtia of the Pennine chain of the Alps, at the head of the Valler of Zermatt, being 14,705 feet high. It rises in a vast irregular pyramid to a height of more than 7000 feet above the plateau which closes the valley, and is by far the most imposing object in the Alps. It is so steep in most parts that very little snow lies upon it. The ascent, long con sidered impossible, was first made by Edward Whymper in 1865, together with Messrs. Hudson and Hadow (who were killed by a fall in descending). The rock is of granite gneiss, pervaded by granite veins; and the existing form is probably due chiefly to the action of currents swelling road it, while the land was slowly rising, and bearing away tan softer strata.

MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST. See GOSPFL

MATTHEW OF PARIS, one of the chief of r chroniclers of the thirteenth century, probably derived fas surname from having at some time studied at Paris, tim the leading university of Europe. See CHRONICLE

MATTHI OLA, a genus of plants belonging to the order CRUCIFERE, and consisting of annual and perennial herbaceous plants inhabiting the warm countries bordering

Hesse, who had remained in prison since 1947. After in vain praying the emperor for his restoration to liberty he entered into negotiations with the King of Denmark and many of the German, states, and also with the King of France. In 1552 he left the emperor's cause in disgust, took the fieid with the Protestant princes, and achieved a brilliant campaign. The result was the evichrated treaty of Passat (12th Angust, 1652), which restored to the Protestants the free exercise of their religior and the rights of which they had been deprived siner the victory of Mullberg.

Maurice now turned his arms against Albert, duke of Brandenburg, who had repudiated, the treaty, and defeated hin at Sievershanser in Luneburg but tel mortal i wounds. in the engagement (17th July, 1530) Hekh behind him. the renown, of a sagacións statesman, a subtir dibiomatis, and a great captain.

MAURICE, JOHN FREDERICK DENISON, was the son of a l nitarian minister of inch repETE TOT HUS zea and nhilanthropy, and was bort, or the 25th Angust. 1806, He was sent at ar each age to Trinity Courge Cambridge, whợ he had for true Julius C. Har all where he termed an intimate friendship with Johr. Starting —a frier dskap which lasted through the whole a Sterling life, and was made al, the close it, the end be the mariage a the friends to two sisters. From Trinity Collige boCA Maurier and Sterling migrated to use the unreS," phrase to the smaller body at Triin Hah, when M Manrier began to exert that singnise inferner, narii mora and nat intelectual, minor those with whom he was hrou, la mte eentact, which marks in it aftale Bong + eenscientions dissente Prom, some of the doctrines of the Thirty-nine Articles, he was at this time nushte të take his forma dezret, but he passed the usna examina tions with distinctu

Having removed from Cambridge to Lamdor with the purpose, a' following a Tienen carren together with is Thund Sterling bi enicky obtain at inrednotar të the Luenaum, far wideł he vote or mais a litan criticism, and, which tớ & shært time he saited. About the same tirat he came bolɗre the world as the authế d' à nove" a' s thonghi'n anë, striking character er Title" instar: Corw Meantime LNT LAIN "HIS AIN

belo ha dia.” pom throat same m'abcar ins But be the infirene A

MAURICE.

literature in King's College, London; and in 1846 be added to this the professorship of ecclesiastical history in the same institution. He was further nominated by the bishop of London, Dr. Blomfield, to preach the Boyle Lectures in 1845-46. The fruits of his labours in these various fields of duty appeared from time to time in several volumes of “Sermons" and "Lectures" which he gave to the word.

He wrote also on the various phases of the Tractarian controversy in the days when John Henry Newinan was the centre of thought in Oxford. Upon the question of the policy of enforcing subscription to religious formula he published shortly after entering holy orders, a pamphlet entitied Subscription no Bondage." In this essay be maintained that the Thirty-nine Articles were intended to be guides to a course of manly studies in ethics, theology, and Christian literature, and to protect students from the acceptance of superstitions which would interfere with the

freedom of their inquiries.

In 18f he published a volume of Theological Essars," what at once provoked much angry and hostile criticis.n. nised to serious consequences to himself. In this work Mr. Maurice contended against the ordinary doctrine a ter endlessness of future punishments as inconsistent with the gospe, of Christ's redemption, and as founded

or an Arian abuse of the word "eternal" The pubbition at this volume provoked a storm of opposition from many that one section of the church, and one of its MAL's was that the author was in the same year diem ased from the two professorships which he had 11 Etherte in Kil's College. In the succeeding year he published his Lectures of the Ecclesiastical History of the First and Secane Centuries." founded or notes of extempore lectures

he had formerly delivered at King's College, remiðlind and mrenared for the press by Lin sed. For mast years he has beer earnestly striving to ameliorate the int a ti working class, and about this time he beg to advocati # sostem, of social combination among workin mer or Listar nrin vitles. UL this sutee: be delivered & SETS ( Ictures at Willis Rooms in 18. 4. and be bad the substantiar of seeing these prin sirles, practancy ete hading and egen vi hec in the establishment of the Workaz iས་ Cullige in Great Ormond Street, the princ pas p Aviot be DE TA ILAI y years, and over which be ne2.1.1 water to the inst with undiminished interest. IT INNE ht was noted by Mr. Cowner minister of Si. Per's chane 11. Å are Street. Cavendist. Senare, warms his gemak vare remarkable for their earnestress mi thay things, bet above all fue their power of swartshas meumbency he resignal 1. this fre years at his Lie he .... *** 1 Jessenilt a, mura plijesomey g: Cambridg. Bar. 8 Arri IN

3 3ak །

MAURICE OF NASSAU.

stimulating and healthful kind. As a teacher he was never content merely to impart knowledge; it was his aim to awaken in his pupils a desire for instruction, and to set them upon a path of direct personal inquiry and acquisition. In the work of social reform, upon which he spent so large a portion of his time and energy, he accomplished much that was of direct and immediate value, and he opened the way for improvements in the lot of the working classes with are still being developed. His personal influence aho was very great over all with whom he came in contart, and though he dreaded becoming the founder of "a school, there were many earnest ardent workers who gathered round him, and, like Charles Kingsley, delighted to call him "master" and look up to him for direction and consel. Strong, pure, devout, self-denying, and consumed with seal for the welfare of others, he embodied one of the Hest types of Christian character, and proved by his eeer the possibility of the attainment of the highest y virtues in spite of the controversy, strife, and turEinvolved in an active public life in the present day. (See "Life of Frederick Denison Maurice," by his son, Chcel Maurice, two vols., London, 1884.)

MAURICE OF NASSAU. See ORANGE. MAURITIUS, ISLAND OF, called also Isle de France, is situated in the Indian Ocean, between 19° 58′ 20° 33' S. lat., and between 57° 18′ and 57° 48′ E. in Its length is about 36 miles, breadth 20, and area 713 square miles. The population in 1881 was 360,360. It has been largely increased, out of all proportion to the natural growth, by the importation of Indian bar, and the coolies now constitute a large proportion of the people. Though the traffic in labour is under perament control, there has been much injustice, and the management and protection of the coloured population ace of the most difficult problems the authorities have tive. The whites of the island are chiefly of French extraction, and many of them speak the French language. Ite dependencies on Mauritius are Seychelles, the Chagos Archipelago, Rodriguez, and some other small insular ps of which collectively the population is 13,000. Mauritius is surrounded by a coral reef, generally runing parallel to the shores, at the distance of 1 or 2 furke, and mostly dry at low water. In this reef occur ven breaks, by the greater number of which vessels of ces derable burden may approach the island. The water >tween the reef and the shores, being less agitated than open sea, affords facilities of communication between the places along the coast. The aspect of the country, statever quarter it is approached, is singularly abrupt 4 picturesque. The land rises rapidly from the coast to terior, where it forms three chains of mountains, from 1 to 2700 feet in height, intersecting the country in ferent directions. The greatest elevations are the Pouce, 250 feet, and the Pieter Botte, 2676 feet, in the northrarge; the Montagne de la Rivière Noire, 2711 feet, ate south-west range; and the Piton du Milieu de l'Ile, by at the centre, 1932 feet in height. The island is early of volcanic origin. At Flacq the flow of the lava ments is distinctly seen, and these streams can be traced to the central districts. Port Louis appears to lie in an rt crater, the Vallée des Prêtres in another, and there ars of at least ten others. Formerly Mauritius was ked upon as the most healthy of all our tropical posses2, but of late years the island has been subject to several se epidemics.

Is addition to flowers and fruits of almost every kind, thes of Mauritius grows wheat, maize, yams, and manioc; commercial prosperity is almost entirely dependent the sagar crops, a source of trade so fluctuating that the and is constantly subject to seasons of depression. The exports vary considerably according to the nature of the sugar crop. In prosperous years they are valued at

MAUSOLEUM.

nearly £4,000,000, but they sometimes reach less than £3,000,000. The imports are valued at something less than £2,500,000 per annum. A large portion of the trade is with Madagascar and India, and live-stock is imported from the Cape, Spain, Burma, and Bombay. The revenue and expenditure are each about £700,000 per annum, and there is a public debt of nearly £1,100,000, which has been chiefly incurred for the construction of railways. Horses are few, and seldom bred. Mules and asses are more numerous, and principally used for the saddle. Cattle, goats, sheep, hogs, and fish abound. The dodo, an extinct bird, was exclusively confined to this island. See DODO.

At the end of 1867 a fever broke out in the island which carried off large numbers of the population, owing chiefly to the absence of proper sanitary arrangements; but improvements have since been made in these respects. A fearful hurricane devastated the island on 11th and 12th March, 1868, when out of fifty vessels in the harbour of Port Louis only three escaped without destruction or damage, and in the town several churches and hundreds of houses were reduced to ruin, so that 50,000 persons were rendered utterly houseless.

The government of the Mauritius and its dependencies is vested in a governor, aided by an executive and a legislative council, consisting of seven official and eleven nonofficial members, the latter chosen from the landed proprietors and principal merchants of the island. All their Acts are subject to the approval of the British government. The principal towns in the island are Port Louis, the capital, and Mahébourg.

Mauritius was discovered by the Portuguese in 1505. The Dutch surveyed it in 1598, and planted a settlement in 1640, naming it in honour of Prince Maurice, but they abandoned it in 1708. In 1715 the French took possession of it, formed a settlement at Port North-west, and called the island Isle de France. They remained in its undisturbed possession till the year 1810, when it was taken from them by the British, who since the peace of 1814 have retained it.

This island is the scene of St. Pierre's well-known romance of "Paul and Virginia."

This

MAUSOLE UM, a term applied in modern times to a sepulchral chapel or edifice erected for the reception of a monument; but it originally designated the magnificent structure raised by Artemisia as the tomb of her husband Mausolos, king of Caria, at Halikarnassos, 352 B.C. monument is referred to as being still in existence in writings of the twelfth century, but when Halikarnassos, in 1404 A.D., passed into the possession of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, they found only a few ruins remaining, which they utilized in building their castle. From Pliny's description it appears to have been nearly square in its plan, measuring 113 feet on its sides, and 93 on each of its ends or fronts, and to have been decorated with a peristyle of thirty-six columns (supposed by Hardouin to have been 60 feet high, or upwards), above which the structure was carried up in a pyramidal form, and surmounted at its apex by a marble quadriga executed by Pythis, who, according to Vitruvius, was joint architect with Satyros in the building. It was further decorated with sculptures and reliefs by Skopas, Bryaxis, Timotheus, and Leûcharês. The entire height was 140 feet. In 1838 some bas-reliefs which had been built into the walls of the castle of the Knights of St. John were removed by Lord Stratford de Redcliffe to the British Museum; and in

1856 extensive excavations were begun by Consul Newton, by which the whole of the foundations were laid bare, and many important fragments of sculpture were recovered. These are now preserved in a handsome room built to receive them at the British Museum, and are of the greater interest in that by their help the shape of the original monument has been largely restored.