MARQUETRY.

European discoverers; thus Nukahiva is called Marchand and Martins, Fatouiva La Magdalena, Hivaoa La Domizica, &c. Most of the islands have a central ridge of gland in the direction of the length, sending down stars towards either coast, between which are rich wellwatered valleys. In the larger isles the heights range from 2000 to 3000 feet, and the shores are bold and ky, but with good harbours. They are all of volcanic , abrupt and rocky, with deep water all round, and scarcely any coral. Nukahiva, the largest, has a central et volcanic crater, the rim of which is 3842 feet ve the sea. The produce is sugar-cane, cotton, cocoabamboo, yams, and pulse. The people, who are Way-Polynesians, are indolent, but ingenious, fierce and wake, and repeatedly resisted with success, under comof their chiefs, the attempts of the French to form sements; the French, however, at last prevailed, and 1 claim them as a colony. They also resisted the attempts of missionaries, and long remained in a state of theism of the most cruel and sensual character. But Lere are now several missions. The best harbours are Lelation Bay, Tahuata, and Jarvis Bay, in Houapou. Top area is about 400 square miles, and population about

MAR QUETRY and PAR'QUETRY are two names sping small pieces of wood into ornamental devices, Lete for producing pictures and small decorative works, as the other for floors. Most marquetry work is a delicale kind of veneering. The groundwork is well-dried at or fir, secured from warping. The coloured woods sawn into very thin plates and dyed or otherwise ed. They are then cut into the requisite shape yeas of an exceedingly delicate saw, and the subseprocess is almost precisely similar to that of veneerINLAYING. The cabinet-makers of France, Italy, beam, and Germany are remarkable for the beautiful try furniture they manufacture. Sometimes the 4 is inlaid with other materials, such as metal, ivory, Parquetry is a plainer kind of marquetry, varied as to the different colours of the wood, and ly used as flooring. At Windsor Castle, the London Exchange, and other places, parquetry floors have ad down in recent years. MAR QUIS (Old French markis, that is, keeper of the hark or boundary of the state), a title of honour in EngFrance, and Italy. It ranks second in the five of English nobility. The eldest sons of marquises by courtesy their father's second title, whether earl or The younger sons and the daughters of mares are usually addressed as Lord Edward, Lady Caroc., with the family name. There were no English marquises before the reign of ard II. In the reign of Edward III. a foreign marthe Marquis Juliers, was made an English peer with Ate of Earl of Cambridge, and this circumstance progested to King Richard the introduction of the urder of nobility. The person upon whom it was red was his favourite Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, ated Duke of Ireland and Marquis of Dublin in 1385. The only nobleman sitting in the House of Peers as a - whose title dates before the reign of George III., Marquis of Winchester. Seven marquisates were d at the close of the last century, namely, those of mary, Bath, Abercorn (duke in the Irish peerage), - Hertford. Lansdowne, and Townshend. The other marquisates are all of recent creation, though most Jen were old peerages under inferior titles. I title seems not to have been known in Scotland till e date of the marquisates of Huntly and Hamilton. MARRIAGE, a term used to designate the status of a woan conjoined in matrimony, and also the y by which they are united.

MARRIAGE.

Marriage has ever been in its essence a natural and civil institution, and it has existed, and still exists, under very different conditions in different countries. It seems odd to us, for instance, to learn that the Hassaniyeh Arabs consider their wives tied to them for three days, but perfectly free on the fourth. Inasmuch as the sexes are nearly equal in numbers, monogamy or the marriage between one man and one woman may be said to be the natural law; and it is the practice which prevails most widely throughout the world. Polygamy, or the marriage of one man to two or more women at the same time, is, however, a very ancient and a very widespread custom, and it has been sanctioned and regulated among nations in all stages of civilization. It was permitted by the law of Moses, and we even find the possession of many wives included among the blessings of Jehovah (2 Sam. xii. 7, 8); but in the post-Babylonian period monogamy appears to have become more prevalent, and in the establishment of Christianity the decision of the apostles is plainly given in favour of the latter practice (1 Tim. iii. 2, 12). At the present day it is found that even in countries where polygamy is recognized, the majority of the people are monogamists, either from choice or necessity. The custom of polyandry, under which a woman has several husbands, is much rarer in its occurrence, but there is indubitable evidence that it has existed in ancient times, and it is still recognized in some parts of the world. Still rarer is the custom (probably once universal) of communal marriage. It lingers among the Andamans, Bushmen, &c. In the earliest times we find that men obtained their wives in the same way in which they acquired other possessions, viz. by capture, gift, or sale; and according to the best authorities the first of these methods is the most primitive, and the others represent advances in civilization. In Sumatra in one form of marriage the man purchases the woman, and in another the woman purchases the man. The contract of sale seems to be the foundation of the marriage relation in most systems of ancient law, and it prevails to a wide extent among imperfectly civilized peoples at the present day. Further, although it seems almost absurd to us to regard children otherwise than as equally related to father and mother, the study of savage races shows us quite clearly that at first a man was related merely generally to his tribe; the first advance was the acknowledgment of a special tie to his mother, but not to his father, which in races yet higher is replaced by a relationship to his father and not to his mother (a state of things continuing almost to the highest civilization, as in Rome, where mother and children were slaves, familia, of the father of the family), and last of all as the child of both.

The Chinese and the Jews and the modern Greeks always break some glass or porcelain as part of the marriage ceremony, the understanding being that the marriage is to endure till the broken pieces reunite. For instance, at the marriage, with a young Greek, of the daughter of the famous M. Renan at Paris in 1882, the archimandrite filled a cup with wine, which the bride and bridegroom shared between them, and then the latter dashed the empty cup upon the ground so that it broke into a thousand fragments.

The views of the great classical peoples as to marriage were essentially divergent, the Romans taking a businesslike view and the Greeks holding a lofty religious conception. In fact, a Greek marriage among the ancients was almost as much a public as a private concern. To rear children to the state was as honourable as it was pleasant to rear them in the family, and to provide for the continuance of worshippers of the gods was as earnestly taught to be necessary as to provide for some one to fulfil the children's office over one's own tomb, without which serious risks were run in the other world beyond the grave. From this latter need arose the custom of adoption among child

Faster it Rome. * * 320 pass into the arnaubad,orjurrentia Cemptio, må Tms. 1. Conferrenta was a form of marrage enfined to ༣༣༧*6 ན་ ཉི pete on ng the Binding Mazimas and md for ita nae from a cor cake watery Mouth jer y e da and a dersom on tume persLON. I cake. Ve derive the 1 for wo from the Romans, and Roman wires #yre it on the ring, frizer of the left hand, as is still the Confarreatio required the presence of tau sitienses, and erald only be dissolved by difțareatio. | Ina chirping of such marriages were ei,gible for the highest murgad to etowa; and from them at first the various #ment and gatal virgins were exclusively selected. The form of marriage fel into disuse in the time of Gains, and was abruched by Constantine in 394.

3. Cuemplo was an imaginary mutual sale (mancipium) In prosanes of fan witnesses and the balance-holder."

A mi pa að în munum of her husband usu (that ม by prescriptum," another form of ownership), when with him as his wife for a whole year winterruptedly. If she wished to avoid the legal effects of this cohabitation, she might, according to the laws of the I wrdzo Tablon, break the unus by absenting herself from her hnsland for three nights during the year. This form of Trepisure. De bars to have been introduced after the admission of the Etruscans to the state, The ease with which the yoke of marke e by usus was borne is nowhere better exemplified than in the following two examples, Cato The Youn, cr, the best and most moral of the aristocrats vanced the death strugla of the republic, at once I his wife on finding that a friend loved her, that

surtice of the Roman Camarle Church, mì tà co if the Pattant dis ect in the m mare as a sarei md drinely-appointed crinier, Lo mpany the ceremony with religious rites azú inces. By the v pamage is regarded as purely a t contract, ini with certain important exceptions the ry principies which attain ti antracts in general ar to the mutare contact. The terms and aniti es marriage contract vary greatly in diferent cvantries, and subjoined will be found a few particulars in refer-vos to the marriage laws which prevail in the United Kinzie England-In England, until about the middle of the eighteenth century, there were three distinct methils oÁ marrying There was marriage by publie celebratia a the church or in facie ecclesia, the anditions of w20) were the publication of banns or the grant of a Tarbe to dispense with them, the performance of the maria” ceremony in the parish church between the hours of tit and twelve in the forenoon, and when the spouses, of either of them, happened to be under are, the eccsend of their lawful guardians. There was clandestine manriage by a clergyman episcopally ordained, when all the conditions were neglected; and again there was ente sensual marriage, or marriage by the simple count of the parties themselves in words, either written or spek N implying a present contract or a promise followed by cohabitation. But in the view of the temporal ezra there was always this difference between the first and second, and the third kind of marriage-while the two former were good ab initio, the last was only petenti v good. The two former rendered a subsequent an AS void, the last only rendered it voidable. If A. contracted a consensual marriage with B., and afterwards a marri in facie ecclesiæ or a clandestine marriage with C., ¤°

MARRIAGE.

temporal ecurts would recognize the second and not the frst. Bat if B. went to the ecclesiastical courts, as coad always be done, and compelled A. to celebrate the consensual marriage regularly, the temporal courts wald then repudiate the second and admit the first marriage. Lord Hardwicke's Act of 1753 abolished candestine and consensual marriages, and made due celebration in church after banns or license, and the eonsent of lawful guardians in the case of minors, essential to the validity of a marriage. This important departure from the old common law of England was not effected without much opposition, but it remained in force for the next seventy years, and it was not until 1836 that the Registration Act was passed, and purely civil marrages became legal in England.

The most important Acts now in force by which mar"a is regulated are the 4 Geo. IV. c. 76 and the 6 & 7 WAIV. c. 85 (amended by 7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 22 mi 3 & 4 Viet. c. 72). By virtue of these Acts marriage may now be legally contracted in England in either of the Dowing modes:-(1) By special license granted by the Amishop of Canterbury, which enables the parties to be married in any church, chapel, or convenient place, and at my hour; (2) by ordinary license granted by any archpor bishop, under which they may marry in any arth or chapel in his diocese where banns may be lawFy published; (3) by banns, which must be published in the church, or a public chapel in which banns are allowed bepablished, of the parish or chapelry wherein each of the partes dwells, immediately after the second lesson of the morning service, or of evening service if there be no ting service, upon three Sundays preceding the solemata; (4) by certificate of the superintendent registrar district without license; and (5) by such certificate whense. With respect to the two last methods of g marriage, it is provided that where persons deare to be married by registrar's certificate without license, re must be given to the registrar of the district or diswithin which the parties have resided for seven days Ps, which notice is inscribed in a marriage-notice be open to public inspection at all reasonable times, and thereafter suspended for twenty-one days in some conspiplace in the registrar's office. During this period any person whose consent is necessary to an ecclesiastical may forbid the issue of a certificate, but failing such Fon the certificate will issue at the end of twentydays. When a registrar's certificate with license is renotice must be given to the registrar of the district which one of the persons resides, together with a declarate that he or she has resided for fifteen days therein, that tere is no impediment to the marriage, and that the necesesents, if any are required, have been obtained. The Vice is not exhibited in the registrar's office, and the cerate may be obtained at the expiration of one whole day entry, together with the license. If the marriage is rated in a dissenting chapel (and for that purpose such pel must be duly licensed and registered) a registrar of dtrict, with two witnesses, must be present; and while inister may use any form of service, the ceremony tut elude a mutual declaration of assent by the parties, disavowal of any impediment. If the marriage is to eplace without any religious service it must be celeated in the office of the superintendent registrar, with rs, in his presence and that of another registrar of strict and two witnesses. In all cases save that of allonse the ceremony must be performed between Lars of eight in the forenoon and twelve at noon.

ition to these requirements, in order to constitute marriage, it is also necessary that the persons should be capable of standing in the relation of husband and wife cther, which capacity implies that at the time of the extract there should be no natural or legal disability.

MARRIAGE.

Total and permanent disability on either side to consummate marriage will render the contract void. Temporary disability from illness does not affect the validity of a marriage. Temporary disability from defect of age does not invalidate the marriage, but it leaves the party or parties at liberty to void or to confirm such premature union on attaining the age of consent, which for males is fourteen and for females twelve. Each party must have the will to contract marriage with the other, therefore idiots and insane persons, who cannot understand the nature of the conjugal relation, are incapable of contracting marriage

Consanguinity within certain degrees, and affinity also, are legal impediments to marriage. The degree of nearness which disables parties from uniting in marriage varies in different countries, and has varied at different periods in our own. [See AFFINITY and CONSANGUINITY.] The impediment to marriage arising out of consanguinity applies in the same degree to illegitimate as to legitimate consanguinity, and the impediment resulting from affinity is created by illicit connection as well as by marriage. The Council of Trent restricted the impediment of affinity arising out of illicit connection to the second degree.

Scotland.-In Scotland the law of marriage differs in many important particulars from that of England and Ireland. According to the law of Scotland marriage is constituted by consent, and consent only. The various forms of marriage which are there recognized are, properly speaking, the different modes in which the law allows or requires such consent to be proved.

1. Public or Regular Marriage.—This must be preceded by due publication of banns in the parish church, according to the rules of the church, or by the publication of a notice of marriage by the registrar in accordance with the provisions of the Marriage Notice Act, 1878 (41 & 42 Vict. c. 43). The ceremony is performed in presence of at least two witnesses. It may take place at any hour of the twenty-four, and does not require to be in a church or any place of worship. The celebrant is a clergyman, minister, or priest of some religious denomination; but Quakers and Jews may solemnize marriage according to their respective usages, provided the parties be both Quakers or Jews respectively. The marriage must be duly registered in terms of 17 & 18 Vict. c. 80, s. 46, and 23 & 24 Vict. c. 85, s. 15. Marriages celebrated in accordance with the above requirements are all declared to be regular marriages by the Act of 1878; but the celebrant proceeding without a certificate of banns or registrar's certificate, and the registrar granting such certificate without due compliance with the statute, and married parties failing to register as required by the Acts, incur penalties of a more or less serious kind.

2. The following are termed irregular marriages:— (1) Clandestine marriages. These also are performed by clergymen, and differ from regular marriages in this only, that they are not preceded by publication of banns or the registrar's notice of marriage, and under the Act of 1878 expose the celebrant to a penalty not exceeding £50. (2) Marriage by declaration of consent de præsenti. The consent may be given either verbally or in writing, or even by signs, but it must be proved to have been given seriously, deliberately, and unconditionally, and one at least of the parties must at the time have had his or her usual residence in Scotland, or have been living in Scotland for twenty-one days immediately preceding (19 & 20 Vict. c. 96, s. 1). When the proof of consent depends on a written acknowledgment, such document must have been produced and acted upon during the lifetime of both parties in order to give the woman the status of a widow. (3) Marriage by promise and subsequente copula. A promise or engagement to marry followed by copula is held to establish marriage, because it presumes consent de præsenti to have been given at the time of the copula; but this is