MANSARD.

sequence became for a time the central position of the French army of the Loire during the Franco-German War of 1870-71. It was the scene of some severe fighting on 10th and 11th January, 1871, between the troops of General Chanzy and those of Prince Frederick Charles and the Grandduke of Mecklenburg, in which the former were completely defeated and 20,000 of them made prisoners. The town was evacuated by the French on the 12th, and remained in possession of the Germans until the close of the war.

MANSARD, FRANÇOIS, was born at Paris in 1598. At the age of twenty-two he distinguished himself as an architect, but none of his works are in a pure style of architecture. He died in 1666. He is said to have been the inventor of the curb roof, characteristic of the Renaissance and now with modifications common in Paris, called after him a Mansard, which consists of two planes on each side, a steeper one below and a flatter one above, so that it admits of an attic being lodged in it. Mansard roofs are rapidly increasing in England, as they not only make the roof useful but highly ornamental as a termination to the building, giving it an imposing and varied sky-line.

MANSARD, JULES HARDOUIN, a nephew of the preceding, born in 1645. He was the architect of Versailles and of the dome of the Church of the Invalides at Paris. died in 1708.

He

MANSE, in Scottish law, originally meant a determinate quantity of ground, the extent of which is not known, fit either for pasture or tillage, set apart for the use of the clergyman of every rural parish. The term is now applied to the dwelling-house, including stable, byre, barn, and other offices to which he is entitled by law; the portion of land with which he is also provided being called his glebe. Ministers of parishes within the bounds of royal burghs are not entitled to manses; but where the parish is partly rural and partly burgh-royal the heritors are bound to provide him with a manse. The burden of erecting and supporting the manse lies upon the heritors who are the proprietors of lands within the parish. On the completion of the building the heritors may apply to the presbytery of the parish, who upon visitation will pronounce the manse a free manse, the effect of which is to oblige the minister to keep the manse in tenantable condition during his incumbency. When a manse stands in need of additions and repairs, or when a new manse is required, the minister may petition the presbytery to have the same examined; and after consideration of plan and estimates, the presbytery will grant decree against the heritors for the sum necessary for the required alterations. Over and above their proper stipend clergymen of rural parishes are entitled to 4 acres of arable land in name of glebe, and to grass for a horse and two cows as grass glebe.

MAN'SEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE, D.D., a celebrated modern metaphysician, was born at Cosgrove, Northamptonshire, 6th October, 1820. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and St. John's College, Oxford, becoming a scholar and fellow of the latter in 1842, and in 1843 he took a double first. He was afterwards ordained and appointed a tutor of the college. In 1855 he was appointed reader in moral and metaphysical philosophy at Magdalen College; in 1859 Waynflete professor of logic; regius professor of ecclesiastical history in 1867, as successor to Dean Stanley; and in 1868 dean of St. Paul's. He died at Cosgrove Hall, 31st July, 1871.

sel's which excited the greatest interest, however, was his Bampton Lectures of 1858 on the "Limits of Religious Thought," which awakened a keen and interesting controversy, in which Professor Maurice took an important part. Designed by Mansel as a defence of revealed theology, his theory was denounced by some of his critics as amounting to "virtual atheism." A posthumous work, consisting of lectures on "The Gnostic Heresies," was published with a memoir in 1875.

MANS'FIELD, a market-town of England, in the county of and 13 miles N. by W. from Nottingham and 140 miles from London by the Midland Railway, is situated in a valley near the little river Mann or Maun, and is surrounded by the district known as Sherwood Forest. It contains a town-hall, mechanics' institute, a commodious parish church, a free grammar-school, and a union workhouse. The principal manufactures are those of thread, stockings, silk and cotton gloves, lace, and mustard. There are also some iron-foundries and an extensive trade in malt. The neighbouring quarries supply an excellent stone for the purpose of architectural ornament. The population in 1881 was 13,563.

About 1 mile from Mansfield is the village and township of Mansfield-Woodhouse, near which are some curious remains of two Roman villas.

MAN'SLAUGHTER, in English law, is the unlawful taking of human life without malice express or implied. It may be either voluntary or involuntary, but it implies that the act was done without premeditation. Thus if in a quarrel a man strikes his opponent with his hand and so causes his death, the act would generally be regarded as manslaughter, but the use of a weapon, such as a knife or pistol, would very possibly be held to imply premeditation, which would make the crime murder. Manslaughter may be committed involuntarily through culpable carelessness or neglect, and it is in this sense that the term is generally interpreted in Scotland. See HOMICIDE.

MANTE GNA, ANDREA, was born at Padua in 1431. His parents were in humble life. His chief residence and his school were at Mantua, under Gonzaga, but he worked occasionally at other places, especially at Rome. The Triumph of Julius Cæsar" was purchased by King Charles I. from the Gonzaga family. This, his greatest and most esteemed work, consisting of nine tempera pictures, each 9 feet high and 9 feet wide, is now at Hampton Court. Unhappily it was coarsely painted over by Laguerre, in the time of William III. Mantegna was undoubtedly the greatest painter of the north of Italy in the fifteenth century, and he was the first to engrave his own designs. There are some fine works by him in the National Gallery. He was the son-in-law of Jacopo (the elder) Bellini, aud through him and his brothers-in-law exercised great intinence upon the rise of Venetian art. He died at Mantua the 13th of September, 1506.

and burnt by William the Conqueror in 1096; his horse reared in treading on the burning embers concealed by a heap of ashes, and in recovering himself he was thrown forward on the pommel of the saddle and so much in red that he died in Rouen a few days after. The population in 1881 was 5847.

MANTINEIA.

MANTINE'IA was situated in the east part of Armada, in an elevated plain of considerable extent, which was bounded on the north by the plain of Orchomenos, and en the south by that of Teges. The Mantineans had a democratical form of government, and were closely connected with Argos.

In B.c. 385, after many and long-continued wars, the Spartans took Mantineia and destroyed the city. After the battle of Leuktra the Mantineans rebuilt their city, and it was in the vicinity of their town that the battle was forght (B.c. 362) between the Spartans and Thebans, in which Epaminondas fell. Mantineia, in later times, joined the Acha an League. Pausanias, who visited this city in the second century, describes it as a large and flourishing ple, and bas devoted a considerable part of his eighth back to a description of its works of art. The ruins of Martincia, now called Paleopoli, are still considerable. walls are nearly entire.

MAN TIS is a genus of insects belonging to the order ORTHOPTERA and family Mantidæ. These insects are nd in all warm countries, are exceedingly numerous, 14 remarkable for the grotesque forms which they usually e. Their resemblance to a portion of a plant is often s great, that it is only by their motions they can be Fred. A Javanese mantis so exactly resembles a pink red that insects are attracted into its very jaws in search of cory. Another tropical species presents a close resembar to the white ants on which it feeds.

A number of legends have clustered round the mantis evant of a peculiarity in its structure. The protra is greatly elongated, and is usually bent at an

Mantis.

gle with the body, and carried in a semi-erect posiThe first pair of legs are converted into powerful ps of cffence. The cora or basal joint is much trated, while the femur or thigh is very long, and has t under surface a deep groove, the edges of which are med with strong spines. The tibia, the joint which >s, is also armed with spines, and can be bent back as the blade of a penknife on the femur. The curious state of the mantis as it stalks slowly along or remains

on the watch for prey, has led to its being mited with a sanctity to which it certainly has no claim, various names, soothsayer (Gr. mantis), preacher, ** &c., attest. In the south of France it was held that point out the way to a lost child. According to er legend, a mantis having alighted on the hand of M. Francis Xavier, was desired by him to sing the praises ; with which request it immediately replied by ina beatiful canticle.

The Mastide feed on flies, grasshoppers, and other

MANTUA.

insects, and one species, Mantis argentina, of Buenos Ayres, seizes and eats small birds. Their formidable fore limbs are also used in fighting among themselves, and the females sometimes devour the males.

In the Mantide the body is elongated, the antennæ thread-like, the wings well developed with the veins showing a fan-like arrangement.

The eggs are deposited by the female mantis upon plants, where they are arranged in a symmetrical manner, are covered by a glutinous substance, which soon hardens into a kind of case. The form of the case varies according to the species. The young when hatched resemble the parents, except in size and in being destitute of wings.

The Mantidæ are most abundant in the tropical parts of the world, especially in South America, but a few are found in the south of Europe and North America. Mantis religiosa (the common praying mantis) is common in the South of France: it is about 2 inches in length, with simple thread-like antennæ. The species of genus Eremophila, inhabiting the deserts of North Africa, resemble the sand in colour.

MANʼTLET, a temporary fortification to protect gunners from the bullets of the enemy. It is made so that it may be hoisted while aim is being taken, and then lowered so as to cover the whole opening in the embrasure, casemate, or port-hole, except a small aperture for the muzzle of the gun. They are generally made of solid planks of wood or iron plates; but during the Crimean War the Russians constructed some very skilful ones of plaited rope. Mantlets have become more used than ever of late years, in consequence of the precision and length of range of the modern rifles.

MAN TUA or MANʼTOVA, a city of great historic importance in Northern Italy, 22 miles S.S.W. of Verona, situated on an island about 5 miles in circumference, in the middle of a lagoon formed by the Mincio, and joined to the mainland by causeways, the shortest of which is about 1000 feet in length. The town is regularly and very strongly fortified. It is well built, with wide streets and squares, and contains many handsome structures. The principal buildings are the cathedral, one of the finest in Italy; the church of Sant Andrea; the churches of San Maurizio and San Sebastiano; the house of Giulio Romano, whose works

as a painter and an architect form the greatest glory of the city; the Church of Santa Barbara, rich in paintings; the public library of 80,000 volumes, and the museum, in which is a valuable sculpture gallery; the ducal palace, an old, vast, irregular structure, partly rebuilt and decorated by Giulio Romano, which contains some good paintings; the Palazzo Vecchio, in which Napoleon I. held his court; several convents, a Jews' synagogue, civil hospital, two orphan and one Jews' asylum; arsenal, cavalry barracks, theatre, sculpture gallery, and the gates and bridges of the town, especially the gate dei Mulini, by Giulio Romano. A palace outside of the town, called Palazzo del Tè, was originally intended for stables for the Gonzaga dukes, but under the direction of Giulio Romano it grew into a vast palace. There is a good fresco there. The town of Mantua contained 29,974 inhabitants in 1882, of whom about 2500 are Jews.

Mantua has a lyceum, gymnasium, academy of fine arts, several scientific and literary institutions, botanic garden, and numerous collections in science and art. From its situation the place is extremely unhealthy. The manufactures comprise silk, linen, and woollen fabrics, paper, cordage, leather, and parchment. Virgil was born at Andes, (now Pietole), 3 miles S.E. of this city.

After the conquest of Italy by Charlemagne in the eighth century, Mantua became the capital of a republic. It then came into the possession of the Gonzaga dukes, to whom it belonged till it fell to Austria in 1708. It was taken

MANUMISSION.

by Napoleon L in 1797, and was the capital of the French department of the Mincio till 1814, when it again came into the possession of Austria Most of the province was annexed to Italy after the war between France and Austria in 1859, and the city was incorporated with Italy in 1866. MANUMIS SION was the form by which a Roman slave was freed from slavery. He might be registered in the census as a burgess with his master's consent; or seccndly, be might receive his liberty as a legacy by will; or finally, he might be manumitted by "vindicta." The master brought his slave before one of the chief magistrates, stated the cause of manumission, and held the slave while the leter of the ecurt pronounced the "vindication," when he let him go from his hand (e manu misit), whence the name of the ceremony. After manumission the parties were no longer master and slave, bat patron and freedman. The freedman tock the name and gentile name of his patron, nsually adding some name of his own choice as a ecgnomen. Thus the well-known Tiro, freedman of M. Tullius Cicero, took on his manumission the names of M. Tullius Tiro. The ceremonies done, the slave put on the pileus, donned the toga, placed a simmet-ring on his finger, and went to get shaved-the distinctive marks of a free man.

MANURE. This word is simply a shortened form of main eurre, handiwork, that is, the work of digging and fertilizing land. Thus Bacon in his History of Henry VII." speaks of arable land which could not be manured (tilled) without people and families" as being necessarily turned into pasture. Hence the word came to be used for cther fertilizing agencies, and finally for these alone. Under this name we include every substance used to amend the soil, er to restore to it some particular principle or ingredient which has been exhausted in the course of cultivation. According to their respective modes of action, manures may be divided into mechanical and chemical, though several rark at once under both heads A mechanical manure er “mender serves merely to improve the texture of the sell, so as to render it more compact er, if needful, more permeable to moisture, air, and the root-fibres of plants. Thus sand or ashes added to a stiff clay, and clay er marl mixed with a soil of loose sard or of peat, are instances of meclianical manures. Their value when judiciously applied is extremely great, sirce, no matter what may be the chemical ccnstitution of the sell, it cannot be fruitful if so light as to allow moisture to escape too rapidly, and permit the roots of plants to be loosened by the wind; or if, on the other hand, it is so dense as to allow water to stagnate in its texture. When a soil is în tine mechanical condition it will not cake together after being wit, and when dried will rapidly gain weight by cendens eg watery vapeur and gases in its pures Chemical manures supply to the soll some necessary ingredient or ingredients either naturally wanting, or which may have been removed by the crops cultivated. The bulk of the organie structure of plants is composed of the elements oxygen, byangen, pitrogen, and carbon, which, in the several combinators et cardeile acid, water, and ammonia, are drawn from the atmosphere and the sell. But even when these are applied to vegetables their growth will not provved unless ecitan mineral substances are likewise furnished in small quantities either by the sell or the water med to moisten it. The great maxrity of plants when burned leave axbes, which commonly de stain silica, potassa, and phosphate of line; eftin, asi, magrosa, soda, sulphates, and exide of iren. L'ese n`eral bodies are essented to the existence of vegetade tissues, and plants will not grow m soils destitute of them, however abundantly suppled with carbonic acid, ammonia, and water. The enbon of plants is wholly derived from carbonie se 1, which is vither absorbed from the atmosphere avd from ra'n-wister by the leaves or from the mo`sture and air miti » sell by the roots. The carbonic acid always present in the air is eagerly

absorbed by the leaves of plants, the carbon being retained and assimilated with the body of the plant, while its oxygen is given out in the gaseous form; this decomposition being always effected under the influence of light at crdinary temperatures. Water is so common an article that in the general way nature provides all that plants require, and the hydrogen and oxygen of which they are partly composed are derived from the water chiefly absorbed by the roots from the soil. The nitrogen of plants is derived chiefy, if not exclusively, from ammonia, which is found only in very minute quantities in the atmosphere and in rain or river water, and this, when exhausted from the soil, must be supplied by manures.

The importance of the mineral elements in the healthy and vigorous growth of plants has been fully established by the researches of Liebig. Polstorff, and others; but more recent experiments have shown that the celebrated "mineral theory" of agriculture propounded by Liebig cannot be accepted without important modifications. According to this theory a soil is fertile or barren for any given pant according as it contains those mineral substances that enter into its composition. Thus, "the ashes of wheat-straw contain much silica and potassa, while the ashes of the seeds contain phosphate of magnesia. Hence, if a sol is deficient in any of these it will not yield wheat. On the other hand, a good crop of wheat will exhaust the soil of these substances, and it will not yield a second crop till they have been restored either by manure or by the gradual action of the weather in disintegrating the subsoil." The professor, in summing up the results of his experiments, draws from them the following conclusions:-(1) By examining the ashes of a thriving plant we discover the mineral ingredients which must exist in a soil to render it fertile for that plant; (2) by examining a soil we can say at once whether it is fertile in regard to any plants the ashes of which have been examined; (3) when the defects of a soil are known the deficient matters may be obtained and added unmixed with such as are not required; (4) the straw, leaves, &c., of any plant are the best manure for that plant, since every vegetable extracts from the soil such matters alone as are essential to it, and when these are used in the proper quantity no other manure is required. He also declared that "the crops on a field diminish or increase in exact proportion to the diminution or increase of the mineral substances conveyed to it in manure." The prolonged and elaborate experiments, however, which have been carried out by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert at Rethamsted appear to prove that it is impossible to get good crops by using mineral manures alone, and that nitrogen as manures (farmyard manures, guano, ammoniacal sits. &c.) are fertilizing agents of the Lighest value.

A

Among manures the first place belongs for many reas, "s to the excreta of animals kept on the farms, together with the straw used as a litter, and farmyard manure" has been chemically proved to contain, without exception, al the constituents which are required by cultivated crops to bring them to perfection. Fresh dung, from its being soluble in water only to a limited extent, is more si w in its action upon vegetation than dung which has been allowed to ferment and become thoroughly retten, t where it is collected in beaps care must be taken to prevent the fertilizing matter being washed away by the rain. pit having in permeable sides and bottom is the best place Er keeping manure, and the bottom should be so cutstructed that the liquid which runs off may be colected and again poured over the heap. Farmyard manure may be enhanced in value by proper regard to the feeding of the animals kept, and, in addition to the fertilizing matter it contains, it hilps also to keep the land open and perous, and thus cxress a bercfcial mechanical influence. Its elif defect is the large amount of water it contains, which anxunts to about two-thirds of its weight, so that when

it has to be conveyed any great distance there is the expense of ecaveying much useless matter. The most powerful natural manure known is GUANO, already described in the article on that subject. The mixtures known as superpsphates are also of great importance. They are prepared chiefly from bones, coprolites, phosphorite, apatite, &c., the materials being treated with sulphuric acid, and ty derive their value chiefly from the soluble biphosphate fine they contain, along with neutral phosphate in a f state of division. Excellent manures are also prepared fm blood, refuse fish, glue-makers' waste, hair, hornsavings, and leather scraps, rendered soluble by means of ric or hydrochloric acid. The crude sulphate of atia and the nitrate of soda are valuable sources of tgen, as are also, in a lower degree, oil-cake and soot. Att soil is a more powerful manure than dung, and as pared and dried in France, under the name of poudrette, 1 has about ten times the value of ordinary farmyard are. The sewage of towns contains a vast quantity ertilizing matter, such as urine, soap-suds, and many ther kinds of refuse, domestic and manufacturing, but the le is so largely diluted with water that its agricultural Fation is yet an unsolved problem, except where lands bw a town in a situation adapted for irrigation. Sea▼is form a useful manure for many crops, especially flax temp, one load of seaweed being considered equivalent about four of farmyard manure. Charcoal, whether of kwood, or peat, is a valuable addition to manures on t of its property of absorbing and retaining in its pases and vapours. Unburned peat possesses a ar property, and where accessible is a valuable manure sandy and calcareous soils, to which it imparts an ined power of retaining moisture. Ashes are often l and those of wood, peat, and weeds yield a con*le amount of the salts of potash. Lime acts in * ways, yielding direct nourishinent to vegetation, and ting the decomposition of organic matter; it also des silica from some of its combinations and renders e any salts of iron. Where a soil is deficient in farmyard manure, guano, &c., may be liberally supand yet fail to produce their proper effect, while on 7dy soils a supply of lime will frequently give better than a mere expensive supply of farmyard manure. Mures, like the food and medicines given to animals, are to be administered with judgment. Those intended azerate the texture of the soil and effect any kind of position in its ingredients should be added a considertime before the ground is planted, in order that they ave full scope to perform their function. Rich nitroonures, especially if volatile, should be given only v mesture is plentiful, and when a vigorous vegetation atcnce appropriate the nourishment placed at its al To dress the land with guano, sulphate of *** &, or soot, in dry windy weather is utter folly. The res, when administered to growing crops, are et vet in a state of solution. They are thus presented **** an available form to the fibrils of the roots, and wered against lying useless upon the soil. In no thod can grass lands be so efficiently top-dressed. 1, however, be admitted that the use of liquid better adapted to a dry climate than to Britain, *re in ordinary seasons the amount of rain bears an ex*** proportion to the temperature. It is a matter of A reproach that even in the present day an immense ty of the elements of fertility are allowed to go to *e, and even to become nuisances, while at the same the cotatry is spending about £3,500,000 per annum Steps have, however, of late years taken it, the right direction, and though many diffitates tuve been discovered there is no reason to doubt of ****te success of the experiments that have been De SEWAGE, UTILIZATION OF.

MANYUEMA COUNTRY.

MAN'USCRIPTS (Lat. manu scriptus, hand-written), literally, writings of any kind and on any material, but generally restricted, in a literary sense, to the books written before the introduction of the art of printing. Large numbers of these manuscript books are preserved in the libraries of Europe, and the reading, dating, and proper use of these form a distinct branch of study known as the science of diplomatics. Most of the manuscripts preserved in Europe have been examined by competent scholars, and their contents, when sufficiently valuable, made known to the world; but there is still room for more thorough and careful work in this direction, and there can be no question as to the necessity for insuring the contents of all valuable MSS. from being lost, by the multiplication of copies through the printing press or otherwise. In the earliest times men wrote upon tablets of wood, of brick or stone, upon the bark and dried leaves of trees, and upon thin plates of metal. Then came the use of skins and the invention of paper from the papyrus reed of Egypt. Paper from cotton or silk was invented in the early part of the eighth century A.D., and paper from linen about the thirteenth or fourteenth century. All the western MSS. extant are written upon parchment or paper, and the former have proved to be of very great durability. Many of the manuscripts that have been preserved bear subscriptions stating by whom and when they were written, but there are others which have no such mark for the determination of their antiquity. Even where these subscriptions are found they cannot be trusted implicitly, as later copyists frequently copied such notices from the originals before them, and there are many such subscriptions which are palpable forgeries. The external characteristics, however, are of less importance in judging the date of a manuscript than the peculiarities of the handwriting, the mode of forming the letters, the use of abbreviations, &c., which suggest important tests of age. The oldest European manuscripts known are specimens of Greek writing found among the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii. In these the writing runs across the volume in large letters, without any division of words or sentences, without accents or ornaments, and with but very few pause marks. This method of writing continued in common use for several centuries after the date of the destruction of these cities, 79 A.D.; but some alterations were introduced by Euthalius in his editions of the books of the New Testament, in the latter half of the fifth century. In the seventh century the letters began to be compressed and inclined, and further changes were gradually introduced until in the tenth century the cursive style of writing had nearly superseded the uncial. By the careful comparison of large numbers of manuscripts a series of rules have been drawn up by which the age of any book can be determined with a very fair degree of accuracy. See also BooK and ILLUMINATING.

MANUʼZIO, ALDO (shortened form of Teobaldo), or in the Latinized form, Aldus Manutius (1449-1515), was a famous Venetian printer. He invented the type called italic, and was very fond of it. The small volumes of the Aldine publications are almost priceless. Paolo Manuzio succeeded to the famous press in 1533, and added to it a professorship of eloquence about 1558. He went to Rome about 1561. Aldo Manuzio, the younger (1547-97), was not only a printer, but an author and professor of belles lettres at Bologna, 1585, and Rome, 1589. He also became director of the Vatican press, 1590. See ALDINE.

MANYUE MA COUNTRY, a large district in Central Africa visited by Dr. Livingstone, the chief town of which, Bambarre, lies 140 miles W. of the northern part of Lake Tanganyika, in about 27° 10' E. lon. Dr. Livingstone was detained here several months in 1869-70, through sickness and other causes, and his last "Journals" (London, 1874) contain much interesting information as to the people and their country. The latter is described as "sur