between Long. 74 deg. and 100 deg. E., slanting southwards along the Himalaya mountains, from Lat. 28 deg. to 37 deg. N. Its chief divisions Lahdak, Undesa, Teshoo-Loomboo, and Lassa. Its principal rivers are the Sanpoo and Mounchoo, and in it are also the sources of several of the principal rivers in Asia. The Indus, Sutlej, Brahmapootra, of the Indian rivers, besides others of China and of Northern Tartary. The Sanpoo is believed to be one of the most considerable rivers in Asia; but as yet the information regarding it is very defective. It has two great ranges of mountains, the Himalayas, lying along its southern limits, and the Kailas, nearly parallel to the Himalayas, in about Lat. 32 deg. N., and of about the same elevation; some of the villages on them being situated at a height of nearly 20,000 feet above the sea. Thibet may be considered as consisting of two portions, the valley between the Himalaya and Kailas mountains, studded with irregular hills, and averaging a height of 10,000 feet above the sea, and an extensive table-land, beyond the Kailas, of similar elevation, declining towards the north and east. Of the interior of Thibet, north of the Kailas, little is known; but it is believed to consist of extensive stony and sandy plains, diversified by hills, and by pastures traversed by small streams. Between the Himalayas and Kailas are two remarkable lakes; the Manaswarora, in Lat. 31 deg. N., Long. 81 deg. E., and the Rawun Hrood, about ten miles further westward. The former is considered by the Hindoos as the most sacred of all their places of pilgrimage. The Chinese and Thibetians of Undesa call it Choo Mapang, and it is considered by them also a holy place. Rawun Hrood is the source of the river Sutlej. In consequence of the great elevation of this country, its climate is exceedingly cold, particularly in the vicinity of the Himalaya range; where, dur

ing winter, the cold is quite as severe as in the north of Europe; meat and fish being preserved in a frozen state as in Russia. Its vegetable productions are not numerous, its chief riches consisting in its animals and minerals. Barley, coarse peas, and wheat, are the grains; rice is not cultivated. Turnips and radishes are the only vegetables, and peaches and bynes the only fruits. Thibet, however, abounds in cattle and sheep, and wild-fowl and game of every description. Horses and mules are numerous, the latter being commonly used for carriage. The sheep also are used for the same purpose. The horse and the ass are both found wild. The most remarkable animals of Thibet are the yak, or bushy-tailed ox, sometimes called the grunting or, the musk deer, and the shawl goat. The yak is rather larger than the Malwa bullock, and is covered all over with a long thick hair, from which are manufactured ropes and cloths for tents. Their bushy tails are greatly valued, and are much used as fly-flaps (or chowries), or as ornaments for horses and elephants, for which purposes they are in much request in India, China, and Turkey. These oxen are never employed in agriculture, but generally for carriage. The musk-deer is about the size of a common hog, which it resembles a good deal in appearance. The musk is found only in the male, in a little bag at its navel. The shawl goat is so named from its yielding the soft silky hair used for the manufacture of the celebrated Cashmere shawls. This species of goat is found in no other country. All the animals of Thibet are provided with thick coats of hair and fur adapted to the coldness of the climate. The dogs are large and powerful, and the cat of the longhaired kind, known in India by the name of Persian or Lama cats. The minerals are principally gold, quicksilver, nitre, and salt. Firewood is very scarce throughout the country

beyond the Kailas, the dried dung of animals being almost the only fuel. The inhabitants are called by the English Thibetians. They are considered to belong to the same general race as the Tartars, and are entirely distinct in appearance from the natives of Hindostan. They are described as a mild and contented, but indolent people. Their manufactures are chiefly of shawls and woollen cloths, of which they supply large quantities to China, their principal intercourse, both commercial and political, being with that country. The Thibetians have the singular custom of polyandria, that is, of one wife belonging to several husbands: the elder brother of a family having the right to select a wife for himself and all his brothers. They do not bury their dead, but burn the bodies of the lamas, and expose those of the other classes to be devoured by the beasts and birds. Their chief food is mutton, which they are fond of eating raw, and barley prepared in various ways. They use plates of china or copper, with knives and forks. The religion of Thibet is that of Bood'h, which appears to have been introduced from India, and established throughout this country at an early period. The priests are all styled lamas, and amongst these the dalai lama, or grand lama, and terhoo lama are held to be particularly sacred. The Grand Lama is considered to be no less than the deity in a human form, on the dissolution of which he enters a new one. The terhoo lama is also looked upon as an incarnation of Bood'h, and is honoured by the Emperor of China as his religious teacher and guide. There are two sects of the lama Booddhists, distinguished from each other by the dress of the lamas, the one wearing a red, and the other a yellow cap. The latter may be considered the principal, being that of the grand and terhoo lamas and of the Chinese emperor. The red division is

chiefly established in Bootan. The lama Booddhists entirely reject all distinction of caste, and admit proselytes of any nation. The principal idol in their temples is that of Maha Moenee (great saint), the Bood'h of Hindostan. The language appears to be quite distinct from the languages of India, though the alphabet and character are believed to have been derived from the Sanscrit. It has two dialects; one for works of learning and religion, the other for common purposes. The letters run from right to left. Printing with wooden blocks is practised, and is said to have been known to the Thibetians from a very early period, but it has been so limited in its use through their superstition, that not the slightest improvement in it seems to have been made, and it therefore remains in a very imperfect state. THUGS, or PHANSEGARS (as they are styled, to distinguish them from common dacoits) consist of a set of abandoned characters, either Moosulmans or Hindoos, of various castes, who live for a part of the year in cities or villages, apparently engaged in harmless occupations. These persons resemble Freemasons, so far as they are always known to each other by some distinguishing sign. At a convenient period, the brotherhood of each district assemble together, and, being formed into bands, disperse themselves over large tracts of country, those of the Dooab moving down towards the central provinces, and in their devastating progress waylaying, robbing, and murdering every individual who has the misfortune to cross their path. Although, during a considerable period, the existence of Thugs (as they are called from their dexterity in strangling) was suspected, the ideas formed concerning them were extremely vague and uncertain. Reports went abroad of the fate of travellers ensnared while walking or riding upon the road, by a silken noose thrown over their heads in

the manner of the lasso, and the perpetrators were supposed to be isolated individuals infesting the wild and less frequented parts of India. Many persons imagined that these atrocities were confined to the Rajpoot States and the kingdom of Oude, districts exhibiting scenes of outrage and bloodshed unknown to the Company's territories; but, in 1830, the apprehension of a band of depredators was the means of bringing the whole of an unparalleled system of atrocity to light, and the depositions of some of the criminals have proved that, in this instance, rumour, so far from exaggerating the horrors of the deeds committed, has fallen short of the truth. It has never been known that in a single instance has a robbery been committed by the Thugs without the previous destruction of life, generally by strangulation. This is effected either by means of a roomaul, or shred of cloth, well twisted and wetted, or merely by the hands, though the last is rarely practised, and only in the event of failure in the former and usual mode. On a preconcerted signal being given, the victim, or victims, are immediately overpowered, and the perpetration is the business of a moment. In committing murder it is a strict rule with the Thug to avoid shedding blood, as its traces would, in many cases, lead to detection. In the hurry, however, in which it is sometimes necessary to provide for the disposal of a more than ordinary number of bodies, the graves cannot be made large enough to contain them entire, in which case they are cut to pieces and closely packed. When buried by the road-side, or any other exposed place, it was their practice to kindle fires on the spot, in order to prevent the marks of the newlyturned earth from being too conspicuous. Murders in the manner thus described are accomplished with equal certainty and despatch, and with the same facility while the

victims are walking along the roads, as when they have been enticed to their encampment and are sitting amongst them confident and secure, while they have every thing carefully and leisurely prepared for their destruction. These murders are frequently perpetrated contiguous to villages, from whence they have induced strangers, on their journey from distant parts, to take up quarters in their company. They are usually performed before the twilight is completely over; and while the work is going on, a part of their band are singing and beating their tomtoms, in order to drown any noise the sufferers might make, and to give the whole camp the appearance of careless festivity; thus the victims are despatched with ease and security, even within call of assistance, and almost in the face of a whole village. The different persons actually engaged commence their operations simultaneously, and by a signal given, which, of course, is preconcerted, but at the same time quite arbitrary, generally a commonplace expression not likely to excite attention, such as tumbakoo lao (bring tobacco). The roomaul, or twisted shred, is the only implement used by the Thugs. The noose is not made of cord, although the general supposition is that such an instrument is employed in the commission of the murders, but if it ever was adopted, its use has been long abandoned, for this obvious reason, that if in any search so suspicious an article should be found upon them, there would be no difficulty in guessing them to be professed Thugs. In passing through a country, the large number of which the bands consist is sufficient in itself to excite inquiry, and there is always some plausible tale or explanation ready to be given by these people, in order to remove any doubt respecting the peaceableness of their characters and pursuits. Few carry arms; amid twenty or thirty persons there

they have emissaries at all the kutcherries of the different districts, who manage in various ways to screen the parties from detection when the murder of missing persons is suspected. Great efforts have been made by the government to annihilate the race of Thugs, but they still exist in great force. THUMBOO, a tent. The camp equipage in India is necessarily of a superior description to that used in Europe. The intense heat of the climate suggests the use of flies (or false roofs), kunnauts (double walls), thick chintz linings, &c. Officers on the line of march, and civilians out on district duty are under canvass, as the phrase runs, for a large portion of the year.

TICCA, hired. As every body in India finds it more convenient to own every thing he uses, and generally more economical, it is seldom that any thing but palankeens, boats, and carriages are hired, and then only by persons of small income, or who have rare occasion for those

conveyances. TIFFIN, the term in use amongst the English residents in India to signify "luncheon." It is an important meal in India, as people generally dine late. TIMOR, an island in Asia, forming one of the Sunda Islands, in the Eastern Archipelago, lies between about Lat. 8 deg. and 11 deg. S., and Long. 123 deg. and 127 deg. E. Its chief productions are sandal wood and earth oil. It also yields gold and copper. Rice is also cultivated, and a species of sago, and it has all the common domestic animals. It is inhabited by a pagan race, of dark complexion and frizzled bushy hair, but differing in other respects from the Papuans, and appearing to hold a middle place between them and the brown races. This island belongs to the Dutch, who have a fort at Koopang, at the southern extremity, in Lat. 10 deg. 10 min. S., Long. 124 deg. 10 min. E.

SARANG.) The title is also given to the master or coxswain of the large pier or bunder-boats which ply in the harbour of Bombay. TINDOO, the tree which yields ebony. TINNĚVELLY, a town in India, the capital of the district so named, in the province of Southern Carnatic, is inland, and situated in Lat. 8 deg. 48 min. N., Long. 78 deg. 1 min. E., a little to the westward of the Tumbrapoornee river, about twenty-five miles distant from the Western Ghauts, or Mountains. It is a large and populous place. TOBRAH, the nose-bag of a horse. The word is in use in Persia and Afghanistan.

TODDY, a corruption of Taree, the juice of the taul, or Indian palmtree, which in a fermenting state is intoxicating.

TODEAS. See COIMBATORE. TOFUNCHEE, musketeers in Persia; mercenaries.

TOKDAR, the name given in Hurreeana to the bustard. The natives call the bird Goorarm, because the male, during the breeding season, growls like a lion. The birds resort together in the cold season in flocks of from three to twenty-five, but in the hot winds and rains they separate, pair, and breed. The female lays two eggs in a nest on a prominent hillock among grass.

TOLA, the unit of the British Indian ponderary system. It weighs 180 grains English troy weight. The tola is chiefly used in weighing the precious metals and coins. TOMAUN, a Persian gold coin, varying in its value according to locality or the temporary necessities of the government. At some places and times it is worth only fifteen or even twelve shillings sterling; while in others, particularly in Khorassan, it rises as high as from thirty to thirtyfive shillings. TONDIMAN'S COUNTRY, or the TONDAMUNDALUM,, a district

of the province of Southern Carnatic, in India. This division was originally connected with the Hindoo kingdom of the Chola Desum. It subsequently became a distinct zumeendaree, under the rule of a Hindoo chief, called by the English the Tondiman, from Tondi, and the English word man, a corruption, probably, of the old Hindoo name, Tonda-mundalum. Although at present nominally a dependent of the British Government, the Tondiman is allowed the full possession of his zumeendaree, free from tax or tribute of any kind, as a reward for the remarkable fidelity exhibited by his family in their connexion with the English through all the changes of fortune, especially during the early wars of the Carnatic. The

natives of this district were long celebrated as most expert thieves, from which circumstance they derived their name of collaries (kullurees, from kullur, thief), but so much is their character improved, that now a theft is seldom known among them. The instrument commonly called by Europeans the "cholera horn," derives its name from this people, and is properly the "Kulluree horn."

TONJON, a large easy chair, supported on men's shoulders by a single pole, running fore and aft, like that of a palankeen. The Tonjon is chiefly used by ladies in India, wherein to take the air in the morning or evening.

TOOLSEE, the Hindostanee name for a shrub of sacred basil. TOOMBUDRA, the, a river in India, which is formed by the junction of two other rivers, named the Toonga and the Budra. The Toonga rises in the Western Ghauts or Mountains, a little to the south of Nuggur, or Bednore. The Budra rises in a chain of hills, called the Baba Boodun Hills, situated to the eastward of the Western Ghauts, nearly opposite to Mangalore. The two rivers join at Koorlee, near

Hoolee Oonnoor, in the province of Mysore, and form one river, called the Toombudra. From this, the Toombudra winds to the north and north-east, and falls into the river Kistna, a little beyond Kurnool. TOORKIE, galloways and ponies from Toorkistan, sold at the great fair at Hurdwar. They have been taught to amble, a pace very agreeable to the natives of India, but quite the reverse to Europeans. They fetch from 250 to 800 rupees. TOORKISTAN, a division of Tartary, in Asia, which occupies the northern part of the country. It is generally open, but not cultivated, and devoted chiefly to pasturage. It is inhabited by wandering tribes of Toorkmans, who have large herds and flocks, of horses, camels, cattle, and sheep, with which they move from place to place, according to the season. They have no towns, but live in camps formed of tents, made of woollen, like thick black cumlies. Each tribe or horde is independent. No estimate can be formed of the total population.

TOORKMANIA, a division of Tartary, in Asia, which occupies the southern and western part of the country, from Balkh, to the Caspian Sea; having Khiva and the river Oxus along its northern frontier, and ranges of mountains separating it from Persia and Afghanistan on the southern. In the north-western parts it is mountainous, but for the rest it consists of sandy desert, very scantily supplied with water, in some places quite flat, and in others rising up into mounds, some of which, towards the Caspian, attain a height of from sixty to eighty feet. There are no towns or villages, properly so called, the Toorkmans being all nomade, that is, wandering tribes, moving from one well to another with their flocks and herds, and taking their conical huts, called khirgahs, with them, in search of water and pasture. The only fixed settlement worth noticing is Shurukhs, situated