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of Births, Marriages, and Deaths.

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that there is a very slight diminution in the proportion of men who signed with marks during the six years 1839-44. The average age of men at marriage is about 27 years, and if the mean age of boys during their education be 10 years, the great bulk of the persons married in 1839-44 learned to write between the years 1821-7. The slow progress of instruction in those years is evinced by the facts, that 66.3 per cent. of the men wrote their names in the first, and only 67.6 per cent. (only 1-3 more) in 1844; while 50'5 per cent. of the women wrote their names in the first, and only 508 per cent. in the last year. I fear that the records of future years, in exhibiting the results of the inadequate means employed to educate the present generation of youth, will be as little flattering to our age as the actual returns are to our predecessors. The insufficiency of the national education is the more to be regretted, as the means of education exist, and the funds left for educational purposes, if properly applied, in the charities and public institutions, would, with some assistance from Parliament, supply the children of the poor with the sound knowledge which the scanty earnings of the parents do not enable them to purchase. The annual income of endowments for education is £312,544. The state of education varies in different counties to an incredible extent. [We extract a specimen of this from the tables. In the metropolis 12 per cent. signed with marks in 1844; in Cumberland, 16; in Cornwall, 36; in Lancashire, 40; in North Wales, 45; and in Bedfordshire, 50 per cent.] : and it will be observed, that in all counties, of any amount of population, the proportion of men and women who write remain very constant, from year to year, or vary slowly." P. 16.

"Mortality.-The annual mortality during 1838-44 was 2.189 per cent., or 1 in 46 of the population. It was above the average in 1838 and 1840; near it in 1839; lower in 1841 and 1842; and lowest in 1843, 1844. It varied from 1 in 437 (1840) to 1 in 47.2 1843. In the three first years (1838-40), the mortality was 2.239 per cent.; and in the three last (1842-4) 2∙147, a fall of part. Out of an equal population, for every 24 deaths in the three first, there were only 23 in the three last years. The average price of wheat was 678. 2d. the three first years, and 52s. 10d. in the three last. The average price of butcher's meat per cwt. paid at Greenwich Hospital was 48s. per cwt. in the three first, and 44s. 7d. in the three last years. The mean daily wages of bricklayers, masons, plumbers, and carpenters (of which an account has been kept at the hospital for some years), rose from 5s. 2d. a day, 1838-40, to 5s. 6d. in 1842-4. The declared annual value of British and Irish produce and manufactures exported from England and Wales was £47,138,173. in the three years 1838-40, and 448,400,977. in the three years 1842-4 : the annual official value of imports in the corresponding years was £56,269,884. and £62,141,101. The annual amount of money expended in the relief of the poor in England was £4,581,600. in 1838-40, and £ 5,074,600. in 1842-4. In the last three years, therefore, the price of provisions was cheaper, the commerce and manufactures of the country more active, the relief to the destitute more liberally administered, and the wages of the artizan higher, than in 1838-40; and all these circumstances, favorable to the public health, undoubtedly contributed to the reduction of the mortality observed." P. 20.

Throughout the seven years, and in all the Registration-divisions of the country, the mortality of males has been greater than that of females. Throughout England, in 1844, to every 100,000 males living, there were 2236 deaths, while but 2074 female deaths occurred to every 100,000 females living.

Returns obtained from France, Prussia, and Austria, for 1843, give the following results :

M. Moreau de Jonnés has furnished detailed tabular statements of the mortality of France in 1843. From these it appears the total amount of deaths was 811,435 (the population being, according to the census of 1841, 34,230,178), viz. 406,432 male, and 405,003 female deaths. Of these deaths, 2606 took place from small-pox. The male suicides amounted to 1654, and the female to 488. There were 235 men and 71 women murdered; and 43 men, 2 women, executed. Accidental deaths amounted to 4,942 among the men, and 1494 among the women. The deaths from epidemic causes (the term being used in a different sense to that implied by it in the English returns) amounted to 1974, the proportion of the sexes being nearly equal.

The Government of Austria has likewise furnished some tabular statements, except as relates to Hungary, Transylvania, and the Military Frontier. Likewise excluding these portions of the territory, we find, from the census of Austria for 1840, that the population amounted to 20,975,258. The deaths in the year 1843 amounted to 697,342, viz. 355,518 male, and 341,824 female deaths. Of these 697,342 deaths, 669,889 are returned as sporadic, 10,054 as endemic, 6,847 as epidemic, 3,592 from small-pox, 890 from suicide, 40 from hydrophobia, 442 from murder, 5558 from accidents, and 30 from executions.

In reverting to the Returns for our own country, we regret we cannot furnish our readers with an account of the Causes of Death in 1843 and 1844, as abstracts of these are only contained in the present Report for these years, as far as regards the metropolis, the abstracts for England and Wales coming down only to 1842; and as they were published in the Report of last year (See Med. Chir. Rev. July 1845), we are at a loss to explain their reproduction here. The absence of these returns, and of Mr. Farr's usual letter commenting upon them, much impairs the utility of the present volume. The following is an extract from the Abstracts of the Causes of Deaths occurring in the Metropolis, its population being, in 1841, 1,915,104.

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Marx's Moral Aspects of Medical Life.

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We suspect the compilers of the present volume have been somewhat hard pushed for matter, inasmuch as they have re-inserted the "Statistical Nosology," which is already in the hands of every medical practitioner.

I. THE MORAL ASPECTS OF Medical Life; CONSISTING of the "AKESIOS" OF PROFESSOR K. F. H. MARX. Translated from the German, with Biographical Notices and Illustrative Remarks, by James Mackness, M.D. Consulting Physician to the Hastings Dispensary, &c. &c. Small 8vo. pp. 348. London: Churchill, 1846.

II. LIFE OF George CheynE, M.D. WITH EXTRACTS FROM HIS WORKS AND CORRESPONDENCE. 12mo, pp. 141. Oxford, 1846.

THE first of these works is a very interesting and instructive volume, intended and well calculated to do good to the profession. We sincerely trust that the notice, which we are about to give of its contents, may serve to make it generally known, and may thus induce most of our readers to possess themselves of the book itself. The German original, entitled, Akesios; Blicke in die ethischen Beziehungen der Medicin, von K. F. H. Marx, was published about two years ago at Gottingen. It consists of a series of letters addressed to various deceased physicians, the prominent features and events of whose lives, being the subjects of each discourse, are made to afford a pleasing vehicle for a variety of professional and moral reflections. The literary reader will therefore see that the plan is somewhat similar to that which Landor has adopted, with so much success, in his well-known "Imaginary Conversations."

The first intention of Dr. Mackness was simply to translate the Akesios; but, struck with the fine observations and the many germs of noble thought which often lay buried in a single sentence, he was happily led to extend the plan of his work, by prefixing a biographical notice to each letter, and appending illustrative observations in the way of commentary on its leading thoughts until it at length acquired its present form.

The meaning of the title which Professor Marx has given his production, and the design which he had in view, are thus explained in his own preface :

“ Axeduos, or the Healer (akeopar medeor) was one of the names by which the Greeks designated the demi-god whom the Egyptians called Harpocrates. His birth, which was placed in the winter solstice, indicated the feebleness of the wintry sun, whilst it left hopes, also, of his return in spring, to spread new life. Thus was the god at once an emblem of the infirmities of the sick, and of their hopes of recovery. He was also depicted holding his finger to his lips, symbolizing that sacred silence concerning the mysteries of medicine ever required of the initiated.

"I restricted myself, in the following pages, to the former cheering and consolitary symbol. This work is designed to discuss weighty points in the healing art as it now exists. As to mysteries,-if, in fact, there be properly any such in

medicine, they will not here be unravelled. I deal not in this work with systems of healing, or methods of treatment;—no, what dwells in every heart, and is visible to every eye, and yet is intimately connected with the medical profession, the ordinary, the ethical, the individually personal, this, this alone is my subject. That I have thrown it into the form of letters was for this reason, that I wished, through the medium of certain individuals distinguished, at least, if not universally known, as masters in their particular department, to give prominence to those peculiar characteristics which were exhibited in their practice, their lot in life, or their self-confessions. These persons are no longer living, most of them, indeed, belong to times long since gone by-a circumstance which afforded me all the freer scope for selection, and if the reader does not object to the design of these letters, he will, no doubt, readily excuse the fiction by which I have allowed myself to propound questions and difficulties mooted amongst the living, and to decide upon them through the medium of the departed." P. 2.

The letters are twelve in number, and are addressed to the following characters-Stieglitz, Petrus de Apono, Dr. Cheyne, Hallé, Dr. James Gregory, Albert Thaer, Dr. Lettsom, Nicholas Tulpius, Pinel, Dr. Mead, Desgenettes, and Boerhaave. We shall select for our notice three or four of the most distinguished names on this list, beginning with the Hippocrates of the Dutch School, the great and good Professor of Leyden.

HERMAN BOERHAAVE was born at Voorhout, near Leyden, in the year 1668. In early life, he made great proficiency in classical literature; but his progress was checked, in his 12th year, by one of those apparent (truly it may be called so) calamities, which, by their sobering and deepening work on the mind, often prepare the character for future eminence. This calamity was the breaking out of a malignant ulcer upon his left thigh, which, for five years, defied the power of the healing art, as it was then known. From this affliction he gained two things-a feeling sense of the sufferings of the sick, and an experimental conviction of the insufficiency of existing modes of practice. After all other means had failed, he cured himself by fomenting the part with salt and urine.

In his 14th year, Boerhaave lost his father, who, a minister himself, had designed to bring up his son to the clerical profession. Soon after this period, he was sent to the University of Leyden, where he continued for several years, and distinguished himself by his talents and assiduity. Mead was his fellow-pupil, and the celebrated Dr. Pitcairn was their preceptor. In 1690, he took his degree in philosophy. His pecuniary means being then very low, he began to lecture on mathematics, on which he had bestowed great attention, to a select number of pupils, and was thereby enabled to defray his current expenses, and to continue the prosecution of his studies at the same time. Among these, Medicine was one for which he had the highest admiration; and, although still contemplating the ministry as his future calling in life, he determined to make himself thoroughly ac quainted with the art of physic, before he took upon himself any clerical duties. On this determination, Dr. Johnson very justly remarks, in his Life of Boerhaave, "that Providence seldom sends any into the world with an inclination to attempt great things who have not abilities likewise to perform them. To have formed the design of gaining a complete knowledge of medicine, by way of a digression from theological studies, would have been little less than madness in most men, and would have only exposed them to ridicule and contempt. But Boerhaave was one of those mighty geniuses to whom scarce anything appears impossible, and who

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Life and Character of Boerhaave.

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think nothing worthy of their efforts but what appears insurmountable to common understandings."

It is interesting to know that Hippocrates and Sydenham were the two authors, whose writings chiefly attracted the attention of Boerhaave. In 1693, he took the degree of Doctor of physic. The subject of his thesis was De utilitate explorandorum excrementorum in agris, ut signorum.

It was now his intention to devote himself entirely to the labours of the ministry.

"But Providence had designed otherwise, and made use of a false and malicious report to turn the current of his activity into that channel in which it could be most useful. Whilst sitting in a common passage-boat, or treikschuyt, between Leyden and some adjacent place, several of the passengers were discussing the views of Spinosa, then newly brought before the public, and one person in particular was loud and bitter in his condemnation of them. Boerhave, though he had on other occasions refuted these views, and though his own opinions were deeply Christian, was yet led by impartial love of justice, calmly to inquire of the speaker whether he had ever read the works of Spinosa. The stranger answered he had not, and should esteem it wicked even to look into them. How, then,'

said Boerhaave, can you pretend to judge of them?' This reproof silenced the declaimer, but a report was circulated by some present that Boerhaave was himself a follower of Spinosa, and from this bigoted and utterly groundless charge obstacles were raised, which barred his entrance into the sacred profession, and threw him of necessity into one only less sacred than that which he had coveted." P. 317.

His practice being but inconsiderable for several years, he had the more time-and well did he employ his leisure-for carrying on his favourite pursuits; studying, making chemical experiments, and, in short, exploring every mine of medical lore. Nor did he forget the higher duty of deep and thoughtful perusal of the Word of Truth. Early on every morning throughout his busy life, he retired for an hour for prayer and meditation on the Scriptures. Here, according to his own avowal, he sought and found strength for the duties of the day, and thus was enabled with vigour and cheerfulness to go through his great amount of daily business. In his hours of relaxation his conversation frequently turned on the excellence of the Christian religion, and the value and authority of the Scriptures, delighting to recommend to others what he so highly prized. Health, he was accustomed to say, must be promoted by the tranquillity of the mind, and he knew of nothing which could support himself or his fellow-creatures in the calamities of life but a well-grounded confidence of God."

In 1701, he was elected to the chair of the Institutes of Physic in the university of Leyden. Being an eloquent speaker, and deeply versed in all the knowledge of the time, his reputation soon became generally known. In 1714, he had attained the highest honours in the university, and was then also appointed physician to St. Augustine's hospital in Leyden.

In consequence of his early predilection for mathematical, and subsequently for chemical, pursuits, Boerhaave, notwithstanding his ardent admiration of the works of Hippocrates and Sydenham-the two very men whose writings were less imbued with theory than those of any other medical authors-could not emancipate himself from the then prevailing doctrines in reference to disease. Not satisfied, however, with any of the systems that had been proposed, he endeavoured to combine in one and