in every nation, and have changed with the different epochs in the history of each. Such a law would not have been instituted, had not such a man lived or such an event happened. The act which the arbitrary law of one country approves, is often condemned by the made code of another. It has even happened, that laws simultaneously imposed have been mutually subversive. They are frequently repugnant to good sense, and they have also been unjust; for they have conferred immunities and privileges on individuals, have attached rewards and punishments by no means commensurate to the extent of virtuous conduct, or the magnitude of criminal actions, and have ranked as virtues and as vices actions altogether insignificant or purely indifferent.

Can society neglect positive laws-that is to say, rules of conduct which, clearly announced, are binding on all its members?

No; there are few who may be left to themselves, to their good pleasure, to their inclinations and their judgments. The majority of mankind requires positive laws for its direction,

and frequent admonition as to what is to be done and what left alone.

Wherefore is this?

Because of the generally deficient strength of the sentiments which dictate the Moral Law, and the true rule of conduct in the world. Admitting the necessity of a positive code then, is there any essential difference between natural and positive laws?

The natural laws

There ought to be none. should be promulgated as positive and obligatory on all. Unfortunately, this is not done. The positive laws of society are even too frequently the very opposite of those which the Creator dictates.

How may the artificial laws be subdivided?

Into arbitrary or absolute and into conventional. The former are the result of the good pleasure of the ruler, the others are fixed upon by the agreement of several legislators.

What titles are given to the transgression of any law whatever ?

As regards religion, Sin, and as concerns civil enactments, Crime. These are the most comprehensive terms in use.

Do transgressions of the law, or sins and crimes, admit of degrees of gravity?

That they do is a point admitted by all legislators, civil as well as religious.

What title is given to the consequence of the infringement of a law?

Evil.

Are there many and various kinds of evil? Evil is first physical, or it is moral; then it is individual, or general; lastly it is temporal, or eternal.

Are not these different kinds of evil linked together and inseparable?

Physical and moral evil engender each other mutually. Individuals and society are connected and in relation; and, according to the christian religion, our fate through eternity depends on the present life.

Does it ever happen that man suffers innocently; that is to say, for the transgression of a law in ignorance of its existence ?

It occurs frequently, and in reference to the whole of the three kinds of natural laws. The punishments, too, are always as severe as if merited by wilful neglect. Belladonna

kills him who knows not, as well as him who knows, its poisonous quality, the man of genius and the fool, the pious and the impious. All suffer alike who infringe, as all without exception prosper who obey, the natural laws. Is the study of man a study of great importance ?

What of so much? Man is at the head of the terrestrial creation. He alone examines the causes of natural phenomena and imitates many of them. He alone elevates his thoughts to the conception of a first cause and is susceptible of moral and religious ideas.

What is the great object of the philosophy of

man ?

To determine accurately the fundamental powers of the human mind and to ascertain the conditions under which these are exhibited; to indicate the causes of the functions variously modified in individuals; and to show the necessity of man's as well as of every other created being's submission to the laws which the Creator imposes to enjoy happiness and to secure success in his undertakings.

Is the agency of the natural law suspended, because of man's living in society?

2

By no means.

Man was destined to live in society, and obedience to one natural ordination cannot render another ineffective. The Creator has laid down certain laws for man's social state, adherence to which is indispensable to his happiness, under whatever circumstances he may chance to be placed.

Is mankind happy?

To whatever side we turn our eyes, the unfortunate, and miserable, and discontented meet our view. There are very few indeed who are happy.

Wherein consists the happiness of man?

In the satisfaction of his faculties.

Does the happiness of men differ; or, is that which gratifies one, calculated to be agreeable to all?

Happiness differs universally according to individual constitution. There are as many distinct species of happiness and pleasure, as there are fundamental faculties; and men being unlike in mental endowment, the cause of happiness in one case is frequently a source of disgust in a second, and is unnoticed as either in a third.