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CHINA.

(CHUNG KWOH, 'THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.')

Reigning Emperor.

Tsaitien, Emperor-Hwangti-of China, born 1871, the son of Prince Ch'un, brother of the Emperor Hien-fung; succeeded to the throne by proclamation, at the death of Emperor T'ung-chi, January 22, 1875.

The present sovereign, surnamed Kwangsü, is the ninth Emperor of China of the Tartar dynasty of Ts'ing, which succeeded the native dynasty of Ming, in the year 1644. There exists no law of hereditary succession to the throne, but it is left to each sovereign to appoint his successor from among the members of his family of a younger generation than his own. The late Emperor, dying suddenly in the eighteenth year of his age, did not designate a successor, and it was in consequence of arrangements, directed by the Empress Dowager, widow of the Emperor Hienfung, predecessor of T'ungchi, in concert with Prince Ch'un, that the infant son of the latter was made the nominal occupant of the throne.

Government and Public Revenue.

The laws of the empire are laid down in the Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien, or Collected Regulations of the Ts'ing dynasty,' which prescribe the government of the state to be based upon the government of the family. The Emperor is considered the sole high priest of the empire, and can alone, with his immediate representatives and ministers, perform the great religious ceremonies. No ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at the public expense, nor any priesthood attached to the Confucian or State religion.

The administration of the empire is under the supreme direction of the Nei-ko or Cabinet, comprising four members, two of Tartar and two of Chinese origin, besides two assistants from the Hanlin, or Great College, who have to see that nothing is done contrary to the civil and religious laws of the empire, contained in the Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien, and in the sacred books of Confucius. These members are denominated 'Ta-hio-sz,' or Ministers of State. Under their orders are the Liu-pu, or six boards of government, each of which is presided over by a Tartar and a Chinese. They are:-1. The board of civil appointments, which takes cognisance of the conduct and administration of all civil officers;

2. The board of revenues, regulating all financial affairs; 3. The board of rites and ceremonies, which enforces the laws and customs to be observed by the people; 4. The military board, superintending the administration of the army; 5. The board of public works; and 6. The high tribunal of criminal jurisdiction.

Independent of the Government, and theoretically above the central administration, is the Tu-chah-yuen, or board of public censors. It consists of from 40 to 50 members, under two presidents, the one of Tartar and the other of Chinese birth. By the ancient custom of the empire, all the members of this board are privileged to present any remonstrance to the sovereign. One censor must be present at the meetings of each of the six Government boards.

The amount of the public revenue of China is only known by estimates. According to the most authentic of these, the total receipts of the government in recent years averaged 25,000,000l., derived from taxes on land, grain, licences, and customs duties upon exports and imports, as collected at the Treaty ports by the foreign inspectorate. The land-tax in the north does not exceed 3s. per acre yearly, and the highest rate in the south is 13s. The receipts from the customs alone are made public. They amounted to 7,872,257 haikwan taels, or 2,361,6777. in 1864, and gradually increasing, had risen to 14,085,672 haikwan taels, or 4,000,000. in 1882, and 13,286,757 haikwan taels, or 3,723,0601., in 1883. The customs duties fall more upon exports than imports. The expenditure of the Government is mainly for the army, the maintenance of which is estimated to cost 15,000,000l. per annum on the average.

China had no foreign debt till the end of 1874. In December 1874 the Government contracted a loan of 627,6751., bearing 8 per cent. interest, secured by the customs revenue. A second 8 per cent. foreign loan, likewise secured on the customs, to the amount of 1,604,2767., was issued in July 1878. Two silver loans have since been contracted, and a loan of 1,500,000l. in 1884, the total external debt in 1884 being given at 3,573,2001. The internal debt amounts to about 8,570,000l.

Religion and Education.

The State religion of China has no outward ceremonial, except a few symbolica! rites observed at New Year; it consists mainly in the study and contemplation of the moral precepts of Confucius and Lao-tse. The bulk of the people, however, are Buddhists. There are probably about 30 million Mahometans, chiefly in the north-east and south-west. Roman Catholicism has long had a footing in China, and is estimated to have about 1,000,000 adherents,

with 25 bishoprics besides those of Manchuria, Tibet, Mongolia, and Corea; other Christian sects have stations in many parts of the country, the number of Protestant converts being estimated at 20,000.

Most of the aboriginal hill-tribes are still nature worshippers, and ethnically are distinct from the prevailing Mongoloid population. Education of a certain type is all but universal, and there are few adults who cannot read and write. There is a special literary or lettered class who alone know the Mandarin literature, to the study of which they devote their lives. Yearly examinations are held for literary degrees and honours, which are necessary as a passport to the public service. Recently, Western literature, and especially works of science, have been introduced in translations, and there is a foreign college at Pekin, which embraces both a literary and scientific curriculum. There are numerous Roman Catholic and Protestant missions.

Army and Navy.

According to Chinese official statistics the army is composed as follows:

1. The Eight Banners, including Manchus, Mongols, and the Chinese who joined the invaders under the Emperor Shunchili in A.D. 1644-total 323,800. Of these 100,000 are supposed to be reviewed by the Emperor at Pekin once a year. The number of guards in the Forbidden City, each of whom holds military rank, is given as 717.

2. The Ying Ping, or National Army, having 6,459 officers and 650,000 privates. The pay of the infantry is from 5 to 10 shillings a month, and .the cavalry receive about 11., out of which they must feed their horse, and replace him if the one originally supplied by the government is not forthcoming.

It is impossible to obtain any very reliable information about the Chinese Army, but it is stated that great improvements have taken place since the last occasion upon which Chinese troops were opposed to Europeans. Large quantities of foreign-made arms have been purchased, and the arsenals in China, under foreign supervision, are said to be daily turning out both arms and ammunition. Captain Norman, in his book, 'Tonquin,' divides the army as follows:

I. The Active Army, comprising,

1. The Army of Manchuria;

2. The Army of the Centre; and,
3. The Army of Turkestan.

II. The Territorial Army.

He gives the number of the Army of Manchuria as 70,000 men, divided into two army corps, the head-quarters of the one being at Tsitsihar the capital, and of the other at Moukden. Many of these troops are armed with the Mauser rifle, and possess a liberal supply of Krupp 8 centimètre field cannon. The Army of the Centre, having its head quarters at Kalgan, an important town to the N.W. of Pekin, is numbered at 50,000 men in time of peace. This number, however, can be doubled in case of war. The men are a hardy race, and are armed with Remington rifles. The army of Turkestan is employed in keeping order in the extreme western territories, and could not, in all probability, be moved eastwards in the event of war with a European foe. The Territorial army, or 'Braves,' is a kind of local Militia, capable of being raised to a strength of probably 600,000 men. The numbers are kept down in time of peace to 200,000. The Tartar cavalry of the north are mounted on undersized but sturdy ponies. The small size of their horses, and their wretched equipment, render them no match for European cavalry. Permanent Manchu garrisons under Manchu officers are established in a few of the great cities on the coast, and along the frontier.

China has lately acquired a considerable Navy; the ships are many of them of an advanced type. The northern squadron, defending the capital, is the most powerful, and has been efficiently drilled and organised by an English naval officer.

In 1884 the Chinese Navy possessed 2 powerful armoured ships of modern type, built in Germany, and detained there at the close of the year in consequence of the doubtful relations with France. These are sister ships, named the Teng-Yuen and Chen Yuen, They are of 7,400 tons displacement, 6,200 horse-power, and of 15 knots speed. Their armour (steel-faced) is 14 inches thick, and they each carry four 12-inch Krupp breech-loading guns in two towers, protected by 12-inch armour. The disposition of the towers resembles that of the turrets on the Inflexible.

A third protected cruiser, also built in Germany, was launched at the end of 1883. She is of 2,300 tons displacement, has a protective deck over machinery and magazines, and carries two 8-inch Krupp guns in a barbette, protected by 10-inch armour. During 1884 two armoured cruisers, the Nan Thin and a sister ship, built at Kiel, have been despatched to China. They are of steel, of about 2,200 tons displacement, and each carry two 8-inch Armstrong guns, besides a number of 40-pounders and machine guns. Two swift cruisers (unarmoured), built by Sir W. G. Armstrong & Co. in 1881, are also attached to the North China Squadron. Their hulls are of steel, they steam 16 knots, carry two 26-ton Armstrong guns, and four 40-pounders, and are only of 1,400 tons displacement. To the same squadron belong 10 or 12 gunboats, built by the Elswick

firm, each carrying a single heavy gun-26-ton or 38-ton. This type of gunboat was originated by Mr. G. Rendel, and there are very many examples in the Royal Navy, but with smaller guns than are carried by the Chinese vessels.

The squadrons of Loo-Choo, Shanghai, and Canton include between 40 and 50 unarmoured cruisers, corvettes, sloops, and gunboats. There is a cruiser of 2,150 tons, and 2,400 horsepower. Some of these vessels are of considerable size and power. The cruiser Yang-on, of 1,600 tons displacement, and 1,250 horse-power, and five other vessels, were destroyed by the French at Foochow in 1884. Still larger vessels are reported to belong to the Shanghai division, and are of Chinese construction. Several torpedo-boats of high speed and capable of using Whitehead torpedoes have also been acquired recently.

Area and Population.

Hitherto the population of China, it is believed, has been much over-estimated; good authorities would reduce it to 250 millions, which the Statistician to the Chinese Customs Department considers is probably nearer the truth than any of the higher estimates. A census for fiscal purposes reported to have been taken in 1882 is stated by the United States' Minister to give a population of 255,000,000. The following tables give a statement of the area and population according to Behm and Wagner's 'Bevölkerung der Erde,' 1882.

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The territories of Corea and Annam are sometimes added to this total. The ordinary native name of the country is Tsyo Syeun, or Keirin. The monarchy is hereditary and of an absolute type, modelled on that of China, as is also the penal code; there is a hereditary aristocracy. There is no standing army, but all the men are liable to military service. The State religion resembles that of China; Bud

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