denoted by the affix che, succeeding the noun, as Thien che gen, "Heaven's favour." In the comparison of adjectives, the Chinese call in the aid of mountains, forests, etc., to denote the gradation. Thus, for “I am exceedingly angry," they say, My anger is as high as a mountain, and as deep as the sea. But the best idea of the Chinese grammar may be found in their division of words. These are separated into three classes: first, "live words," or verbs denoting action or passion; secondly, "dead words," or nouns substantive and adjective; thirdly, "auxiliaries of speech," or particles that assist expression.

From this it may be inferred that the construction of words in sentences differs materially from our own. Their composition is, indeed, extremely simple, as it was in many of the ancient languages. At the same time it exhibits a certain degree of ambiguity.

This simplicity and ambiguity are more observable in the oral than the written language of the Chinese; nevertheless, their sentences being usually laconic, a little attention enables a student to analyze them, whether spoken or written.

The style of the Chinese is neither so florid nor hyperbolical as that of the southern nations of Asia. The climax is a figure in great use, and Chinese writers are extremely fond of metaphors. When they discover a figure that pleases them, they dwell upon it with rapture, and repeat it so frequently that the repetition mars their pages. Parables, allegory, personification, and apostrophe, are rarely met with in Chinese authors; but interrogation, exclamation, hyperboles, and bombastic expressions, abound in their writings. Puns and

other plays upon words are used by the best writers, and they excel in amplification. In their descriptions, also, they excel; the only fault of which is, their being destitute of variety. In these they do not outstep the bounds prescribed by custom.

There are three kinds of style distinguished by Chinese authors: first, when the attention of the writer is engrossed with his subject, without any regard to expressions; secondly, when he is studious only of elegant expressions; and, thirdly, when he combines correctness of ideas with classical diction. Although they have no grammar of their language, they have numerous essays upon style and composition, and a large collection of treatises, which contain patterns of elegant writings. In order to become a classical writer, they recommend the following rules: connexion; variety in the construction of periods, and in the details of the subject; purity of diction; smooth sentences; and lively description and contrast. Whoever studies these points, they say, will be able to write elegantly, and to embody the beauties of the ancients, whom they take for their models in composition.

In a treatise on study, the following rules for a student occur, which exhibit much practical wisdom: "The first thing needful is to form a resolution, for the object on which a determined resolution rests must succeed. Studies ought to commence during the fifth watch, for these early hours are many times more advantageous than the subsequent forenoon, and later portions of the day. The attention should be as intensely exerted as that of a general at the head of his army,

or a criminal judge in a court.

On no account

should there be breaks of five and ten days in one's studies. Do not fear being slow, only fear standing still; fear one day's scorching heat, followed by ten of cold. In prosecuting a journey on the road, he who walks fast and stops frequently, does not get on so well as he who walks constantly and at a slower pace. Study, however, though it should not be intermitted or delayed, ought not to be followed with too great eagerness and precipitancy; for admitting that a man can, if he try, walk a hundred ly a day, yet if he walk only seventy or eighty, he will feel himself strong, and equal to this exertion daily; whereas by working himself up to overstrained effort he will make himself ill, and thus more time will be lost than learning gained."

LITERATURE.

On the subject of Chinese literature, Sir George Staunton remarks: "One of the most remarkable national peculiarities of the Chinese, is their extraordinary addiction to letters, and the general prevalence of literary habits among the middling and higher orders, and the very honourable preeminence which from the most remote period has been universally conceded to that class which is exclusively devoted to literary pursuits. Since the memorable era of Confucius, the Chinese empire has been repeatedly dismembered, and again restored to its integrity; its sceptre has passed through the hands of many families or dynasties; it has been a prey to many intestine divisions and revolutions, and it has been twice subdued by a foreign foe; but the reverence of

the government and people for the name and institutions of Confucius has survived every change."

Under the influence of such institutions, it is by no means surprising that the proportion of the community exclusively devoted to letters should be much greater in China than it is in any other country on the surface of the globe. It is so great as to constitute of itself a distinct class in the state. It is the first and most honourable of the four classes into which the body of the people is considered as divisible, according to the Chinese political system; namely, the literary, the agricultural, the manufacturing, and the mercantile.

The literature of the Chinese consists of their sacred or canonical works; moral and didactic books; history; biography; works on their criminal law; works on astronomy, geography, medicine, etc.; poetry, dramatic writings, and works of fiction. All these are briefly noticed underneath, that the reader may be enabled to form a just notion of the state of literature in China.

Sacred, or canonical works.-These works have been briefly reviewed in a previous chapter.* They are the productions of Confucius and his school, and may be termed philosophical writings. Their whole aim is to teach the Chinese emperors how to rule, and the nation to obey. For this purpose, they represent that all must be virtuous, since on no other principle can order be obtained. This was both just and wise, but it was one thing to tell a people that they must be virtuous, and another to instruct them how to practise virtue.

* See p. 81.

The "sacred or canonical works" fail in this essential knowledge, and hence they must be termed simply theoretical. Confucius himself discovered the inefficacy of his philosophy. He taught the principles of good government, and maintained that if his principles were generally received, all the world would become virtuous, war would cease, and the empire enjoy prosperity and peace; but although he frequently obtained office, for the sole purpose of proving by his own administration that his theory could be reduced to practice, he always failed. Slander assailed him ; vice triumphed over virtue; and, at length, disgusted with politics, he retired into private life. The philosopher himself could not, in truth, sustain an even tenor of moral rectitude; for it is recorded, that he unjustly discarded his lawful wife. So fallible is human wisdom, and so powerless is it to affect the seat of all human actionthe heart. The canonical works may teach some great truths to both the ruler of China and his people, and may even have, to some extent, influenced their conduct; but the heart still retains its original and native corruption, and it can only be cleansed by the influences of the Holy Spirit.

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Moral and didactic books.-These works rank next to the "sacred or canonical works." They are moral and political essays, which have the sanction both of the government and the learned. Dr. Milne thus speaks of the Shing-yu, or Sacred Edict," which ranks high in this list of books: "It treats of moral duties and of political economy. Like all similar Chinese productions, it begins with filial piety, and thence branches out

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