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about feventy years ago, for the important difcovery that the meal of wheat, and of maize, contained not only ftarch, but alfo a foluble mucilage or extract, and a glue of the fame nature as animal matter. Thefe three fubftances are only mechanically mixed with one another. The glue is not capable of the faccharine, vinous, or acid fermentation; but, like animal matter, putrefies. It also affords ammoniack, or volatile alkali, on diftillation; and, on burning, emits the peculiar fmell, and gives the other products, of animal fubftances; neither does it afford potafh, like vegetable fubftances. Beccari, in his account of it, says—" Maffa mollis, fupra quam credi poteft tenax; egregium glutinis genus, et ad opificia multa aptiffimum." The principal and effential difference between the meal of wheat and potatoes is, that the former contains animal matter, and the latter, in place of it, a leafy or fibrous vegetable matter; but the principal ingredient, in point of quantity, in both kinds of meal, is ftarch; and they both afford an extract, or contain a foluble mucilage. The proportion of the animal glue of wheat is ftated varioufly in different experiments; but the general mean refult appears to be, that it is about one twelfth of the meal. To this glue is imputed the fuperior quality of wheat meal for bread. It is fuppofed to give tenacity and firmnefs, and at the fame time promotes the fermentation, in making bread; as well as gives it a tafte.

10. The contemplation of the nature of the conftituent parts of the potatoeroot, and of other kinds of meal, is perhaps more interefting to medicine and chemistry than to the branch of knowledge called economy: it is, however, immediately relative to the object of the Board to obferve, that we may fafely conclude that ninety-eight or ninetynine parts, out of a hundred, of the meal of the potatoe-root, are convertible, or capable of being affimilated, into animal matter.

11. With refpect to the comparative quantity of nourishment afforded by potatoe-meal, feveral eminent writers have afferted-but, I believe, from ana

logy rather than actual observation-that wheat-meal, and bread of wheat, are more nourishing than an equal weight of other kinds of meal or bread. This conclufion has been made from the fact that the meal of wheat contains animal matter, whereas the other kinds, except the meal of maize, contain none at all, or an extremely fmall proportion. It appears, however, by abundant evidence, that men who are nourished by vegetable food alone, are as long-lived and healthy, and are furnished with organs, and perform the functions of the animal oeconomy, as perfectly as other men who are nourished by animal food, or by a mixture of animal and vegetable food. There is alfo fufficient evidence, in many parts of this kingdom and Ireland, that the potatoe-root and water, with common falt, or other feafoning, can nourish as well as any other vegetable matter and water, with feafoning. It might indeed have been concluded, from analogy, that the potatoe-root is capable of affording adequate nourishment; for the principal vegetable nutriment of mankind is meal," "and efpecially thofe kinds of meal which contain no animal matter; and the principal, as well as effential, ingredient of meal, is ftarch; of which fubftance the farina of the potatoe-root contains more than half its weight; a proportion not much, if at all, inferior to that in other kinds of meal in general ufe.

I cannot therefore find any juft ground for the opinion, that the meal of wheat muft afford much more nourifhment than an equal quantity of potatoe-meal; for if it be granted that this must be the cafe, because the former contains animal matter, it is reafonable to believe that the proportion of the animal matter is too imall to occafion confiderable difference between the nutritive properties of wheat and those of other meals. But it appears, from fome experiments of feeding animals upon the glue or animal part of wheat, and upon the meal freed from this animal matter, that the former is much lefs nutritive than the latter.

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It is alio, I believe, a fact, and one of great importance, that potatoes and water alone, with common falt, can P 2 nourif

nourish men compleatly; but other mealy fubftances, although the principal food of millions of the human race, who never tafte animal fubftances, are always mixed with other kinds of ali mentary matter; fuch as oil, fruits, whey, milk, four-milk.

meal, or root, and the bran of wheat. It is a matter of curiofity, and might be useful, to try to make bread of potatoe meal, mixed with the glue or animal part of wheat; which is a refidue of every little value at prefent in the ftarch manufactories.

12. To prepare potatoe-meal of the 14. It is, however, moft profitable, beft quality, the fliced ropts thould be and perhaps falutary, to ufe the potadried in a much lower temperature toe-root for food, cooked by merely than in the above Experiments-1.4. boiling or baking it is obvious, that 5.-otherwife it will be brown, or it is the fimple and cheapest preparablackish, and have an empyreumatick tion. In this way the meal is taken tafte. The thinner the flices, the more into the ftomach, more intimately mixSpeedily, under equal circumftances, ed or diffufed through two and a half, will the roots be dried: they will dry or three times, its weight of water, very fpeedily upon a net, fulpended in than is the cafe with artificial mixtures the air of a kiln, of the temperature of of the meal and water. Hence the about one hundred and ten to one eafinefs of digeftion, and lightnefs of hundred and thirty degrees. I think it well be beft not to pare off the skin, as probably it principally contains the volatile or effential oil, which gives an agreeable flavour: nor is there any reafon to fuppofe that the fkin is not alimentary, or that it poffeffes noxious qualities.

It has been propofed to dry rafped potatoe roots, after draining off the watery liquid; but the meal to obtained will have been deprived of the greateft part, or all, of one of the ingredients of the root, namely, the foluble mucilage; which alone is undoubtedly nutritive, and probably may, by its mixture with the other conflituent parts of the potatoeroot, render them more nutritive, and be rendered fo by them..

this root, above other farinaceous fubftances equally nutritive. Hence alfo this root alone, or with the addition of a fmall proportion of meat, or oil, can afford fufficient nourithment to mott perfons, without difordering the ftomach by its bulk; as is the cafe with the white beet, turnip, onion, and other roots which contain a much larger proportion of water than the root of the potatoe.

It is well known that potatoe-roots are easily kept for many months, without being fpoiled by growing, or pu trefaction: and, at the fame time, retain the greatest part, or the whole, of the water of the freth root.

There is good reason to believe, that cufiom would foon render boiled or baked potatoes as agreeable to the palate as bread; and that they might fupply its place at dinners of animal food, in many cafes, with decifive advantages.

13. There is, I apprehend, no reafonable doubt that potatoe meal may be ufed for preparing the different forts of ftarch, distinguiled by the names of fago, tapioca, vermicelti, macaroni, falop, common ftarch; and ferve for in- 15. The potatoe-root may be renfinitely various compofitions of cookery, dered more nutritive by malting. Maltfuch as puddings, bifcuits, paftes. The ing is an operation of the vegetable art of fermenting potatoe-meal into Economy, during growth, by which bread, in place of wheat, has not yet tafteicis meal is changed into fweet been difcovered; but excellent bread mucilage, called fugar. However agreecan be made by a mixture of about able to the palate, occafionally, this three parts, or perhaps of two parts, of preparation may be, it cannot be of meal of wheat, and one part of potatoe- fuch extenfive ufe as the meal; for, like mcal, or by a mixture of due propor- all ftrong-tafting muchages, by repeattions of the root itfelf, and wheat-meal. ed ufe it palls the appetite. Like them, It has been fail, that good bread therefore, it can, in general, only be may be made of a mixture of potatoe- uted occafionally, and to render other

tural habits are oftentimes fubdued by prudence, corrected by difcretion, and foftened by the influence of polite intercourfe. In their manners they are originally unpolifhed, but they after

kinds of food favoury. On this account fome of the moft nutritive vegetable fubftances, fuch as carrots and parfip-roots, the juice of the fugar-grafs, honey, &c. cannot fupply the place of potatoe and other meals, although they,wards become nicely adapted to their are more nutritive. Fat oil, alfo, although more nutritive than farinaceous febfances, cannot fuperfede their ufe; because, alone, it foon palls the ap

pente.

The more extensive cultivation of the abore, and other faccharine roots, and of vegetables which furnish oil, muft neceffarily ferve very effentially to render food plentiful and they will be agreeable or gratifying to the palate, provided they be mixed with due proportions of farinaceous fubftances.

National Character of the Scotch.

SINCE the union effected between the

fituations in the world: ftrangers to that equality of refinement which is produced by the general diffufion of affluence in a wealthy ftate, and accuftomed to the eftablished gradations of fuperiority, their manners are originally fiamped with the impreffion of their particular ftation, and afterwards conform themselves only to the exigency of temporary circumftances. To their inferiors they are haughty, to their equals fevere, and to their fuperiors fubmiffive; but their haughtinefs is not always accompanied with contumely, their feverity with morofenefs, or their fubmiffion with meannefs. In the qua

litics of their heart, as in the faculties

two kingdoms of Scotland and of the mind, we find them impreffed England, the Scotch have formed fo with the ftamp of education: imbibing confiderable and diftinguished a part of in their earlieft age the facred principles fociety in this country, that it may not of religion, their conviction commonly be, perhaps, an ufelefs or unimportant remains for ever imprinted on their talk to delineate their national charac- minds, and they are therefore generally ter, as it may contribute to refcue merit fincere in its profeffion, even though from the detraction of calumny on the they may not be exactly obfervant of its one hand, and to circumfcribe within precepts: rarely becoming profligate, the bounds of truth the praife which is though they may have ceafed to be virattributed to it on the other. In confi- tuous, and retaining a fenfe of piety, aldering them with a view to their intel- though they may have difregarded the lectual faculties, we must acknowledge dictates of morality. Influenced by that they poffefs a quickness of com- thefe principles, they commonly act prehenfion, a clearnets of conception, a with integrity, unlefs corrupted by afflu penetrating fagacity, and a folid judg- ence, or excited to ambition by the acment; but they are diflinguifhed rather quirement of power; but governed by for a ftrength of underftanding, than a the precepts of that frugal prudence fublimity of genius, or a brilliancy of which is a part of the education in an imagination. Their minds are a rich inaffluent ftate, or biafled by the confifoil, which is always fertile in propor- derations which fuggeft themselves to tion to its cultivation; poffeffed of fa- the mind employed in the purfuit of culties rather intellectual than creative, wealth, they poffefs not in a very emithey owe their attainments more to the nent degree the more generous affectipowers of ratiocination than the intui- ons of the human breaft. Careful only on of genius. Excited by the natural to obey the compulfory mandates of activity of their minds, which are duty, if they fatisfy its demands, they firengthened by continual exercife, la- feldom exceed its limits; and contracborious, fteady, and perfevering, they ting the expanfe of human charity, feldom fail to obtain the object of their they too often circumfcribe the extent purfuits. In their tempers they are of their beneficence within the circle of Baturally choleric, petulant and perti- national philanthropy. Bacious, impatient of contradiction, and indignant at reproof; but their na

PHILALETHES.

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A Reply to Thomas Paine's Second Part
of the Age of Reafon.* By Gilbert
Wakefield, B. A.

WHILE we admire the alacrity of
Mr. W. in fo foon stepping
forth upon the arena to encounter the
author of the Age of Reason, we cannot
but regret that his contempt for his adver-
fary should have tempted him to appear
-nec mirmillionis in armis,
Nec clypeo Gracchum pugnantem aut
falce fuperna.

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Inftead of the ftrong buckler and the harp faulchion, he brings in one hand a cat o'nine-tails, well fteeped in vinegar, to chaftife his foe, and in the other a fool's cap to place upon his head. In plain language, Mr. W. has, in this reply, taken at leaft as much pains to exhauft his fund of words, of which, especially in the reprehenfive and criminatory claffes, we readily concede to him the honour of poffefling a tolerably good flock,' as to bring forth ftrong facis, and strong arguments, in defence of revelation. To borrow one of Mr. W.'s fplendid images; he has laboured more to gibbet his antagonist on the page of immortality, as a warning to audacious blockheads,' than to furnish the unlearned reader, on whofe mind Mr. Paine's writings are moft likely to make an impreffion, with a plain refutation of his objections. This is the more to be lamented, as Mr. W. could, doubtless, with great cafe, have crowded with hiftorical authorities, and logical reafonings, those numerous pages, which are at prefent loaded with vituperative rhetoric; the fubject having, as he affures the public, engaged his thoughts for many years, and been, as it were, the concentration and convergency of all his Rudies. Not duly mindful, as we deem, of the chriftian rule of not rendering railing for railing,' Mr. W. exhibits, in every variety of figure, which his pregnant fancy and rich vocabulary can furnish, the Age of Reafon as a crude farrago of imperunence and ftupidity, a fink of futility, a bog of vague, fophiftical, and unfubtantial declamation; and the author as a headstrong fciolift, a puzzle-pated N OT E. *See our la, page 16.

fellow, a fwaggering polemic, a noif coxcomb, an impenetrably ftupid an futile braggadocio, an enormous an incomprehenfible dunce, and, in fhort

as a man whofe unprincipled and de teitable audacity language is too feeble to characterife in terms of fufficient aggravation. But we pafs over, with this curfory notice, the declamatory part of this reply, to leave room for a full analysis of thofe fhorter, but moreimporant parts, which are argumentative

To the objection, that in the Old Teftament many things are faid be to done by the exprefs command of God, which are fhocking to humanity, and contrary to our ideas of juftice, it is replied 1. That all the powers of man being the workmanthip of God, and all the operations of human agents at his difpofal and under his controul, all the violations of juftice and humanity, which have taken place among men through every age, are directed by divine providence, and natural and revealed religion, with refpect to this difficulty, ftand or fall together. 2. It was the profeffed object of the Mofaical inftitution to preferve in the world the belief and worship of one God; and we are folely indebted at this day, for our pure apprehenfions of the Supreme Being, to the diffufion of this doctrine from the Jews to other nations: whence it may be queftioned, how far the deftruction of a small portion of mankind in an idolatrous country might be calculated to effect the diffemination of true religion, and, as fuch, be reconcileable to just conceptions of the divine government. The efficacy of fuch a procefs in overcoming at once the power of habit and education, and eradicating error, is manifeft; and there was pot more cruelty, with refpect to God, in deftroying men by the fword, than by earthquakes or pefti'lence in either cafe, we acquiefce in the difcipline, from a consciousnels of our incompetency to judge of the ways of providence. It must be conceded, that this remedy of extirpation was calculated to engender ferocious difpofitions in those who were commiffioned to adminifterit; but the Jews were then little better than barbarians, and their fyftem

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or not, The evidence for the Jewish revelation, and confequently for the credibility of the Jewith fcriptures, is briefly this. A numerous race of men, during a period of three thousand three hundred years, through every viciffitude of fortune, have adhered ftead faftly to a fyftem of religious polity, which they pretend was delivered to their legiflator Mofes from God himself. The ancient renown of this people is attefted by a long feries of ancient writers, high in reputation, neither connected with their religion, nor friendly to their

was adapted to their rude flate, and was ntroductory to a better: add to this, that the contemplation of the fpecific obtt in view would naturally counteract e-the general tendency of fuch fummary difcipline; as the falutary purpofe of furgical operations counteracts their ill effects in hardening the feelings of the operator. 3. National or perfonal vanity may have exaggerated the accounts of the numbers flain in the victories of the Ifraelites. The Ifraelites in confequence of their theocratical policy, were accustomed, on all occafions, to acknowledge the immediate agency of race. Many of these atteftations are, God: hence their hiftorians fpeak of every tranfaction as exprefsly prefcribed by Jehovah, when we are under no neceffity of fuppofing a fecific and actual interference. 4. Perhaps Joshua, and his fellow-foldiers, in compliance with the ferocious character of the times, may have exceeded their commiffion, and indulged themfelves in unauthorized acts of murder and rapine. If Numb. xxxiii, 52-56, be compared with Deut. xx, 16, 17 and vii, 16. it will, perhaps, appear, that the direction of Mofes did not extend beyond a total Expulfion of the original inhabitants.

indeed, preferved in chriftian writings; but the fidelity of thefe extracts, from works now loft, is afcertained, by the acknowledged furvival of those works beyond the time when the extracts were made, and by the known accuracy of other quotations in the fame books from writings ftill extant. The perfeverence of the Jews in their attachment to their religion, and their uninterrupted exiftence as a diftinct people, are facts unparalleled in the hiftory of the human race, and inexplicable on any principle of analogy, philofophy, or tradition without fome original auConcerning the authenticity of the thentication of that religion, proporti books of feripture, the argument from onate to fuch a confequence, and thereanalogy is valid. If one book be re- fore probably divine. The continued ceived as authentic, on established rules feparate exiflence of this people, with of evidence from human teftimony, their ancient cuftoms and language, another book, which comes attended may be regarded as an earneft of their with equal evidence, is equally in- future confolidation into one communititled to acceptance. Scientific demon- ty. Their book of laws is the moft ftration is improperly brought into ancient fpecimen of alphabetic writings comparison with human teftimony. in the world: there is every reafon, The profane hiftories, in the direct ratio of their antiquity, give evidence more largely and explicity in favour of the facred writings. We difbelieve the miracle of Vefpafian, related in Taci tus, not from a want of authenticity in the hiftorian, but because Vefpafian's character and fation threw a fufpicion upon this hearfay fory. The miraculous ftory, related by Jofephus, of the fea of Pamphilia opening to let Alexander and his army país, may be fuppofed to have arifen from a natural phenomenon; and this conjecture is confirmed by Srabo's account, lib. xiv.

It is perfectly immaterial whether
Mofes be the author of the 'Pentateuch

from exifting evidences, to believe that alphabetic writing had its fource with this people, and is of divine original. The purity of the Jewish law is further afcertained by the collation of ancient manufcripts, and by the Samaritan Pentateuch difcovered in the last century, which brought to light the fame fyf tem of laws, in their primeval characters, preferved by a fmall tribe, the tenants of their ancient territories in Samaria, at perpetual enmity with the Jews, and therefore a ftronger corroboration of the mutual integrity of thefe records, from fuch a peculiar correfpondence.

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