Schwan Southern Germany, inclining to the Swiss doctrine, refused to subscribe, and these articles, adopted by the Schmalkaldic League, became thus a chief obstacle to a union between the party of Luther and Zwingli. Schwan, Theodore, an American military officer; born in Germany, July 9, 1841, came to the United States and enlisted as a private in the regular army in 1857; served creditably during the Civil War; was promoted 1st lieutenant in 1864, and brevetted major for gallant and meritorious services in 1867. In 1898 he was appointed a Brigadier-General of volunteers, and won distinction in the Philippines, where he captured Cavite, Viejo, San Cruz and other places in the province of Cavite. He was promoted Brigadier-General, U. S. A., in February, 1901. Schwanthaler, Ludwig Michael, a German sculptor; born in Munich, Aug. 26, 1802. In 1835 he was appointed professor at the Munich Academy. The number of his works is singularly great, while their excellence places him in the first rank of German sculptors. He died Nov. 28, 1848, leaving his models to the nation. Schwartz, Berthold, a monk of the order of Cordeliers, at the end of the 13th century, was a native of Fribourg, in Germany, and an able chemist. It is said that as he was making some experiments with niter he was led to his invention of gunpowder, which was first applied to warlike purposes by the Venetians in 1300. There is, however, much discrepancy in the accounts of this discovery; and it is certain that Roger Bacon, who died in 1292, was acquainted with an inflammable composition similar to gunpowder.. Schwatka, Frederick, an American Arctic explorer; born in Galena, Ill., Sept. 29, 1849; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1871, and served as a lieutenant of cavalry on the frontier till 1877, meanwhile being also admitted to the Nebraska bar and taking a medical degree in New York. After exploring the course of the Yukon in Alaska, in 1884 he resigned his commission. In 1886 he commanded the New York "Times" Alaskan expedition, and as Scilly Islands cended Mount St. Elias to a height of 7,200 feet; in 1891 he led another party to Alaska which opened up some 700 miles of new country in the same quarter. He published Along Alaska's Great River," The Children of the Cold," etc. He died in Portland, Or., Nov. 2, 1892. 66 Schweinitz, Louis Davis von, an American botanist; born in Bethle hem, Pa., Feb. 13, 1780; was educated in Germany in 1798-1812; spent all his time from childhood in the study of botany. His original researches resulted in an addition of over 1,400 new species to the catalogue of American flora. Of these more than 1,200 were fungi, which prior to his time had been little studied. He be queathed his large and valuable collec tion of plants to the Academy of Nat ural Science of Philadelphia. He died in Bethlehem, Pa., Feb. 8, 1834. Sciatica, acute pain produced by neuralgia following the course of the great sciatic nerve, generally in only one limb. Science, in its widest significance, the correlation of all knowledge. A term applied to the generalized and systematized divisions of knowledge. It includes mathematics, physics, chemistry, zoology, etc. To know a truth in its relation to other truths is to know it scientifically. Scilly Islands, a group of islands belonging to Cornwall, England; about 27 miles W. S. W. of Land's End. They occupy about 30 square miles of sea room, and consist of six large islands-St. Mary's (1,528 acres), Tresco (697 acres), St. Martin's (515 acres), St. Agnes (313 acres), Bryher (269 acres), and Samson (78 acres) and some 30 small ones, besides innumerable rocks and ledges, of which about 100 are named. They are composed entirely of a coarse type of granite, a continuation of that running through Devon and Cornwall. Farming is practised, and early potatoes and broccoli are exported; but the principal industry now is the cultivation of narcissus and other lilies -100 tons of flowers being shipped in a single spring. In May and June, during the mackerel fishing, there is one steamer (often two) daily with cargoes of sometimes over 100,000 fish. Scintillation Politically the islands belong to the Scintillation, a twinkling of the stars; a familiar phenomenon to all who have directed their attention to the firmament above us. Under ordinary atmospheric conditions this flickering is possessed only by the socalled fixed stars. A planet shines steadily and by this mark can readily be picked out. When near the horizon, however, planets have been observed to scintillate slightly, while stars at low altitudes invariably twinkle more vigorously than stars overhead. Scintillation may be said to depend on three factors: (1) The vast distance even of the nearest stars re. ducing the largest of them to mere points of light. (2) The ever-changing variableness in condition of the atmosphere through which the light must come to us. (3) The smallness of aperture of our eye, which receives an almost ideal single ray of light. Scirrhus At of the Romans, born B. c. 234. the age of 24 he was chosen to command, as pro-consul, in Spain, where, instead of risking a battle with the superior forces of the Carthaginians, he laid siege to the city of Carthago Nova and took it the same year. In 206 he returned to Rome and was chosen consul for the next year. Sicily was given to him as his province, and having attracted by his character and success an army of volunteers, he crossed, in 204, into Africa. Hannibal was called to oppose Scipio in Africa, and the Second Punic War was terminated by the total defeat of Hannibal at the battle of Zama, Oct. 19, 202. Peace was signed the next year, and Scipio, on his return home, had the most splendid triumph which had yet been seen, and received the surname Africanus. He declined other honors which were offered him; was subsequently censor, consul a second time, and in 193 ambassador to AnScipio, Emilianus Africanus tiochus, King of Syria, at whose court (The Younger), Publius Cornelius, he is said to have met Hannibal. conqueror of Carthage; born about Having accompanied his brother LuB. C. 185. He was the youngest son cius to the Syrian war as lieutenof Emilius Paulus, and the adopted ant in 190, they were accused of misson of Publius Scipio, son of Afri- appropriation of moneys received from canus the elder. He began his mili- Antiochus. Cato was the leader of tary service in Spain in 151; gained the party opposed to Scipio, and the great reputation soon after in Africa, prosecution of Lucius was successful, in the third Punic War; and in 148, but that of Africanus was dropped by though not of fit age, was chosen con- the advice of Tiberius Gracchus. The sul. The next year, accompanied by popularity of Scipio had waned, and Polybius and C. Lælius, he went to he left Rome never to return. He Africa, and at once commenced the died at his villa, in Liternum, 183 siege of Carthage, which was heroical- B. C., the same year in which Hannily defended. It was entered by the bal died. Romans in the spring of 146; and at last a fire broke out that raged nearly a week. Scipio mused mournfully over these horrors, and foreboded like ruin for Rome. Scipio had a magnificent triumph on his return. He led a simple and frugal life, and during his censorship. 142-141, tried to effect reforms in the manners of his countrymen, but without success. By his bold resistance to the proposed reforms he lost the favor of the popular party; and at last, in 129, he was found dead in his bed. Suspicion of murder fell on various persons, but chiefly on Carbo, one of the most rash advocates of the Agrarian reforms. Scipio, Africanus (The Elder). Publius Cornelius, one of the greatest Scirefacias (Latin, "cause him to know"), a judicial writ to enforce the execution of judgments, etc., directed against a person who is called upon to show cause why something should not be done on behalf of the party in whose interest the writ is issued. Scirpus, a genus of plants of the order Cyperaceae, commonly called club rushes; the common bulrush of ponds and sluggish streams is a familiar example. There are about 300 species of this genus. See BULRUSH. Scirrhus, or Hard Cancer, is the most frequent variety of cancer. It has its seat sometimes in the stomach, rectum, and elsewhere; but by far most frequently it attacks the female breast. If detected in time it can be removed Scollard from the breast with every prospect of success. Scollard, Clinton, an American poet; born in Clinton, N. Y., Sept. 18, 1861. In 1888 he was made assistant Professor of Rhetoric at Hamilton College, and later Professor of English Literature, resigning in 1896 to devote himself to literature. Scombridæ, in ichthyology, mackerel; a family of fishes, from all seas of the tropical and temperate zones. They are fishes of prey, and move about in shoals, approaching the shore in pursuit of other fishes on which they feed. Scone, a parish in Perthshire, Scotland, lying on the left bank of the Tay. It is famous as the seat of one of the most venerable of Scotch abbeys. Scone is first mentioned in the beginning of the 10th century, when a council was held there in the sixth year of the reign of King Constantine. A monastery was built at Scone probably about the same period, and there was located the famous stone said to have been "Jacob's Pillow," on which the kings of Scotand were inaugurated. and which was carried by Edward I. of England to Westminster Abbey. Alexander III., the last of the ancient race of kings, and Robert Bruce, the founder of the new dynasty, were crowned at Scone, but after the accession of the House of Stuart the coronation sometimes took place in other churches. The last coronation celebrated here was that of Charles II., in 1651. Scopas, an ancient Greek sculptor, founder of the later Attic school; a native of the island of Paros, and flourished during the first half of the 4th century B. C. One of his earliest works was the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea in Arcadia, on the site of a previous one burned down in 395 B. C. Some 15 years or so later he settled in Athens, where for more than a quarter of a century he labored at his profession. Toward the end of his life he was associated with Leochares and others in preparing sculpture for the great mausoleum of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor. He excelled in statues of single gods and goddesses. Score, in music, compositions for several voices or instruments, or for an orchestra, so written that each part Scorpi has a separate staff for itself, these staves being placed over each other, bar corresponding for bar. Scoresby, William, an English Arctic explorer; born in Cropton, near Whitby, Oct. 5, 1789; commenced a seafaring life at the age of 11 by accompanying his father, a whaling captain, to the Greenland seas; and next succeeding his father, he made several voyages to the Spitzbergen and Greenland whaling grounds. He attended classes at Edinburgh University, carried on investigations in natural history, botany, meteorology, magnetism, etc. In 1822 he surveyed 400 miles of the E. coast of Greenland. After one life in order to enter the Church; and more voyage he retired from seafaring having studied at Cambridge and been ordained (1825) at Bessingby, labored faithfully at Liverpool, Exeter, and Bradford. At length failing health compelled him to retire (1849) to Torquay; but he still continued his physical researches. For the better prosecution of these researches Scoresby made a voyage to the United States in 1847, and to Australia in 1856. He died in Torquay, March 21, 1857. Scorpion Scorpion, in antiquity, a military engine formerly used, chiefly in the defense of a castle or town. In Scripture, a painful scourge; a kind of whip armed with points like a scorpion's tail. In zoology, any individual of the family Scorpionides. The European species are three or four inches long, and confined to the S. parts of the Continent, but scorpions have a wide geographical range in tropical and subtropical regions, and in Equatorial Africa and South America they grow to a length of 9 or 10 inches. They are nocturnal in habit, concealing themselves under stones, the loose bark of trees, and in crevices in walls, coming forth at dusk. They prey on other spiders and insects. Scorpion Fish, or Sea Scorpion, a genus of teleostean (acanthopterous) fishes, belonging to the gurnard family. The red scorpion fish is the common form. The spotted scorpion fish is a second species, and, like the preceding form, occurs in British waters as well as in the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and the tropical seas. Scorpion Fly, a genus of insects belonging to the order Neuroptera, or that of the dragon flies. Scorpion Shell, the name given to the shells of certain gasteropodous mollusks, belonging to the family Strombida, from the projecting spines with which the shells are provided. Scotland at Oxford, and spent his life in the study of old and obscure mystical authors, and the pleasures of gardening, till his death. He died in 1599. Scoter, or Surf Duck, a genus of sea ducks. The most familiar species is the common or black scoter. It occurs in the Arctic regions in summer. An American species of scoter is known as surf duck. Scotland, the N. division of the island of Great Britian. The greatest length, from N. N. E. to S. S. W., between Dunnet Head and the Mull of Galloway, is 287 miles. The breadth varies from 140 miles to less than 30, the latter in the N., between Dornoch Firth and Loch Broom. Few points in the mainland are more than 40 miles from the sea, the country being so much penetrated by inlets. population in 1901, are: Glasgow, The most important cities, with their 760,423; Edinburgh, 316,479; Dundee, 160,871; and Aberdeen, 153,108. The islands of Scotland are said to number altogether nearly 800. On the E. coast they are few and small; but on the N. E. coast are the two large groups of the Orkneys and Shetlands; while on the W. coast the islands are large and numerous. The W. coast of the mainland is generally a wild, deeply indented mountain wall, presenting a series of inlets or sea lochs, while toward the middle the coast is cleft by two great inlets with openings to the S. W., the Firth of Lorn and its continuation Loch Linnhe, and the Firth of Clyde and its ramifications running far inland. The E. coast is sometimes low and sandy, but is often formed of steep rocky cliffs of considerable elevation, the chief inlets being the Firth of Forth and Tay, and the Moray Firth, Cromarty Firth, etc. Both from the configuration of the surface and the geological structure, the country divides into three divisions, the Highlands, Central Lowlands, and Southern Uplands. The first of these divisions lies N. of a line stretching in a S. W. direction from the coast of Kincardineshire to the Firth of Clyde; Scot, Reginald, or Reynold, one the third is the country S. of a line of the first and boldest writers against drawn from Dunbar S. W. to Girvan; the belief in witchcraft, alchemy, as-the country between these lines forms trology, and other prevalent supersti- the Central Lowlands. The Highland tions of his time: born in the early division is remarkable for the numpart of the 16th century. He studied ber and elevation of its mountain Scotland Scotland masses (many of the summits being ly comprised all who held any portion over 4,000 feet high). The mountains of land, however small, from the crown best known by name are the Gram- by tenure of military service, till the pians, which form a system covering a reign of James VI., when the small large area, and culminating on the W. barons or freeholders were excused coast in Ben Nevis, 4,406 feet high; from attendance in person, "two or while 55 miles to the N. E. rises a more wise men being deputed from remarkable cluster of summits reaching each county in proportion to its size. in Ben Macdhui the height of 4,296 Its powers were nominally extensive, feet. The Grampians and their con- but the supreme power was virtually nections are separated from the moun- in the king, who by his influence often tains farther to the N. by Glenmore entirely controlled its proceedings. The or the Great Glen of Scotland, a re- Parliament in the whole consisted of markable depression stretching quite three estates the nobility, the digacross the country from sea to sea, nified clergy, and the lesser barons, or and forming by the series of lakes oc- representatives of shires and burghs. cupying it and the Caledonian canal When presbyterianism was formally connecting them, a waterway from ratified by law after the revolution the W. coast to the E. The Southern of 1688, the ecclesiastical estate ceased Uplands are also essentially a moun- to have a place in Parliament. Pretainous region, summits of over 2,000 viously to the era of the Revolution the feet being frequent, though none ex- privy council of Scotland assumed inceed 3,000 feet above the sea. The quisitorial powers, and even torture central region, though much less ele- was administered under the sanction vated than the other two divisions, of its authority; but it is now entirely has none of the monotony usual in flat merged in the privy council of Great countries. Though occupying not Britain. The number of peers in the more than a sixth of the whole sur-Scotch Parliament was formerly 160, face, the fertility of the soil and its mineral treasures make this part by far the wealthiest and most populous. The slope of the ancient plateau may be determined by the direction of the principal rivers; in the N. part it is chiefly toward the E., in the S. more equally E. and W. and of commons 155, and all sat in one house and voted promiscuously. At the union of the kingdoms the political system of Scotland was almost entirely incorporated with that of England. The Court of Sessions is the supreme civil court of Scotland. The The chief rivers flow to the E., and Court of Justiciary, or criminal court, enter the German Ocean, the largest composed only of judges of the Court being the Tweed, Forth, Tay, South of Sessions, is supreme in the highest Esk, North Esk, Dee, Don, Deveron, sense, since its decisions in criminal Spey, and Findhorn; those entering cases are not subject to any review. the sea on the W. are the Clyde, Ayr, The principal subordinate judicatories Doon, Dee, Nith, Annan, and Esk. The are sheriff courts, established in each Clyde in its lower course carries a county or stewartry. Sheriff-substivast traffic, this being rendered pos- tutes, or judges ordinary, one or more sible chiefly by dredging. Many of holding separate courts in different disthe rivers are valuable from the num-tricts, decide in the first instance, subbers of salmon they produce. A strik-ject to the review of the principal ing feature of the country is the great sheriff or sheriff depute, whose decismultitude of lakes, varying in size ions, though final within the limits from Loch Lomond (28 square miles) to the pool-like mountain tarns. In the Northern Highlands almost every glen has its lake and every mountain hollow is filled by a stream or spring. The most valuable mineral region is the Central Lowlands, where coal and iron exist in such quantity as to make this one of the most important mineral fields of Great Britain. of his jurisdiction, are reviewable by the Court of Sessions. Besides the sheriff court, each county or district of a county has its justice of peace courts, in which judges decide on principles of equity in minor crimes; and in every town of any importance are bailie, dean or guild, and police courts, with limited jurisdictions. Scotland has had the advantage of a The Parliament of Scotland ancient-national system of elementary educa |