man psychologists, Lotze, Fechner, and Wundt,1 the whole matter ought not to be handed over to the physiologist who would apply the precise methods of his own science to psychical reseach. "Who has to study psychology, and by which methods?" was the burning question of those days. tions. Then, as we gradually ascend | advocated by the younger school of Gerthe scale, we notice how rudimentary sense-organs, for receiving and trans. mitting whole series of irritations, make their appearance, and experiments show that the sensations are broadly differentiated into three or four series, in accordance with their outer stimuli-pressure, heat, light, or chemical processes. And next, by a series of imperceptible gradations we are brought to the stage at which each series of sensations is differentiated in its turn, so that we finally recognize our own organs of the senses, and our own sensations. This does not mean, of course, that science has mastered the psychology of animals; but it has got an insight into the primary elements of all psychic life-the elementary sensations out of which and upon which that life is constructed. As to the bearings of these investigations upon psychology altogether, they can only be understood if a glance is cast upon the present standpoint of psychology, which is widely different from what it was very few years ago. III. No science has undergone within the last thirty years so deep a transformation in all its conceptions, its methods, and its very language, as has been the case with psychology. Thirty years ago the old conception, mainly worked out in Germany, and according to which psychology was treated as a mere branch of deductions from speculative principles, was no longer tenable. Under the influence chiefly of British psychologists, who had constructed their science upon a detailed analysis of the experiences of one's own consciousness, metaphysical psychology was compelled to retire in the background. But it was a question very much debated at that time whether the study of the phenomena of consciousness should continue to be carried on, as most psychologists maintained, by means of self-analysis, taken, of course in its widest sense, which does not exclude the study of psychical acts in other individuals as well, or, as it was By this time, the then much feared transference is an irreversibly accomplished fact. Psychology is studied by the physiologist; it is a branch of physiology, making its way to become a sister science to it. To use the words of an American psychologist, J. Mark Baldwin, "we find an actual department of knowledge handed over to a new class of men," who treat it by quite new methods, the methods of accurate measurement and experiment, so familiar to the physiologist. They experiment upon sensations, involuntary actions, acts of memory and thought, and they measure the motions of the muscles and the chemical changes in the tissues in order to value in numerical data the intensity of the psychical acts themselves. And they do not consider their science as philosophy, but know very well that they only contribute, in common with all other sciences, the necessary stepping-stones to build up the philosophy of the universe. Of course, in all psycho-physiological investigations the analysis of one's own experiences of his own consciousness remains now, as it was before, at the basis of psychological conclusions. When the experimenter measures the degree of sensibility of one's eye to luminous irritations, or of one's skin to prickling, or when he records in figures the fatigue of the brain during this or that mental exercise, he may reduce the self-observation of the person whom he experiments upon to its simplest elements; but he also knows that he must 1 Lotze's "Medizinische Psychologie" appeared in 1852, Fechner's "Elemente der Psychophysik " in 1860, and the first edition of Wundt's "Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie" in 1874 (fourth edition in 1894). 2 "Psychology, Past and Present," in Psychical Review, 1894, vol. 1., part iv., p. 373. It contains a brief historical sketch. appeal in most cases to that person or chemical processes, what transitself; he learns from it what its sen- formations of energy and, if possible, sations were during the experiment and what molecular movements took place by so doing he gets a precious guide in at the same time in our nerve-channels his researches. Self-observation thus and nerve-centres? That such changes continues to occupy a prominent posi- take place every psychologist admits, tion in all psychological researches; but to whatever school, dualist or monist, its very methods have entirely been he belongs-the difference between the changed. In the thirty psycho-physio- two being that the dualist sees in the logical laboratories which are now in psychical and the physiological procexistence,1 the numerical relations esses two sets of concomitant but utwhich exist between the energy of the terly and substantially different pheoutward stimuli — light, sound, chem- nomena, while the monist considers icals, and so on-and the energy of the them as two different aspects of the sensations they provoke are measured, same process.2 The study of the and the mathematical law of their re- physiological processes which go on in lations is sought for. Both the con- man during each psychical process is, scious and the unconscious movements accordingly, one of the main objects of which are called forth in man by psychology. But until lately such indifferent sense impressions, under vestigations met with an almost insudifferent states of self-consciousness, perable obstacle in our very imperfect and under different mental states, are knowledge of the intimate structure of submitted to the same analysis; nay, the nervous system and the brain. the mechanism of the growth of ideas, However, within the last few years, a different mental operations, and mem- profound modification has taken place ory itself are subjects of experimental in the views upon the minute structure studies, or of such inquests as the of the nervous system altogether. inquest which was carried on by Mr. Through the discovery of the microGalton, and was epoch-making in psy-scopical units of which the nervous syschology. And although all these investigations are very young - the first psychological laboratory was opened only eighteen years ago-experimental pyschology has already become a natural science in the true sense of the word, a science of which both the powers and the limits are known, and which has already thrown floods of light upon the mental phenomena which, under the old methods, seemed to lie beyond the limits of understanding. At the same time another branch of psychology has suddenly taken, within the last ten years or so, a new development. The ambition of psycho-physiology has always been to find for each psychical process its physiological equivalent-in other words, when a sense-impression has awakened in us certain mental images, what electrical 1 Fourteen in the United States, four in Germany, two in this country, one in France, and seven in different countries of Europe (Alfred Binet, "Introduction à la Psychologie Expérimentale," Paris 1894). tem is built up-the so-called "neurons," whose protoplasmic ramifications intimately penetrate into the tissues, where they seem to meet with the ramifications of the tissue-cells, and whose axial cylinders ramify themselves to meet the ramifications of other neurons through this discovery the whole mechanism of the irritations which result in unconscious reflex movements has received a quite new interpretation. Then, the study of the inner structure of the brain, which was chiefly made by Ramon y Cajal,' on the basis of the above discovery, has led the Spanish anatomist to attempt a most remark The difference between the two views is very well set out in Dr. Lloyd Morgan's "Introduction to Comparative Psychology' (Walter Scott's "Science Series," 1894). " 8 "Les Nouvelles Idées sur la Structure da Système Nerveux chez l'Homme et chez le Vertébrés," traduit de l'espagnol, Paris (Reinwald), 1894. His views have been given in this country in a Croonian lecture, in 1894, before the Royal Society. His larger work waits still for an English translator. bock's and Dr. Lloyd Morgan's) which may be considered as stepping-stones towards the work on the evolution of mind, which is now ripening in science. In the preceding paragraph the progress lately achieved as regards the evolution of senses in the animal world is briefly indicated; but countless researches have been made besides into the progressive evolution of the nervous system and the brain of different classes of animals, and these researches will evidently soon receive a new meaning from the above-mentioned discoveries in the anatomy of the nervous system. Then, and then only, the synthesis of sensation and conception will give us a new insight into the progressive development of the psychical faculties of animals, and throw a new light upon psychology altogether. This is the present standpoint of psychology. able explanation of the anatomical | inal works (Romanes's, Sir John Lubmechanism of the formation of ideas and associations and of attention.' And finally, the application of the same discoveries to the sympathetic nervous system has lately enabled the German anatomist, A. Kölliker, to make another important step. He has attempted to trace the mechanism by means of which our emotions and the irritations of our spinal cord result in such involuntary movements as affect the activity of the heart and the blood-vessels, and make one turn pale or red, shed tears, or be covered with perspiration, have his hair stand on end or shiver, and so on, under the influence of various emotions. Such psychical phenomena and such intimate relations between emotion, thought, and will, which it seemed hopeless to explain by means of selfobservation on the introspective method, have thus had a flash of light suddenly thrown upon them since the above-mentioned transference of psychology to physiologists took place. From The Cornhill Magazine. PAGES FROM A PRIVATE DIARY. June 1st.-The pitiful accident, reported this morning, that befell the waiting for their coronation mugs— between three and four thousand being crushed to death-impresses one with the vast size of modern nations. The description in Matthew Paris, which I have just been reading, of the crowd at the coronation of our Henry III. presents an almost ludicrous contrast. We are told that the citizens of London went out to meet the king in holiday attire, and vied with one another in trying the speed of their horses; and that the Constable of Chester attended the king and kept the people back with a wand when they pressed forward unduly. At the same time, a third equally important branch of psychology was lately called into existence. As in all other sciences, the theory of evolution was accepted in psychology; and by accept-Russian crowd in the Khodinsky Plain ing it, psychology was necessarily led to admit that just as we may trace in the animal series the slow progressive development of all organs, including those of the senses and of thought, out of the rudimentary cell-elements, so also we may trace the gradual and uninterrupted evolution of the psychical life as are seen in the lowest organisms. Beginning with the irritability of proto* plasm, psychologists now endeavor to trace out the gradual evolution of sensibility and perception, so as finally to reach the highest manifestations of perception, will, and thought, at the highest degrees of the scale. A third large | branch of psychology, which may be described as comparative or evolutionary psychology, is thus in elaboration; and in this country we have the good fortune of possessing at least three orig 1 "Archiv für Anatomie und Physiologie," Anatomische Abtheilung, 1895, p. 367. 2nd.-Came to visit Aunt Julia at Barchester. The ecclesiastical atmosphere of the Close is somewhat rarefied and hard to breathe; but for a few days I rather enjoy it. And the cathedral music is capital. The factions seem in a flourishing condition. The dean has put down a Turkey carpet in the sanct uary, which the archdeacon's partying, however, so much as betting and resent as an unspeakable outrage, considering what has been going on among the Christians in Anatolia and Crete. On the other hand, the archdeacon's daughter has become engaged to a minor canon. Aunt Julia, who is a staunch supporter of the dean, told me of the engagement with a light in her eye and deprecatory movement of the hands that meant, "What could you expect?" I asked if she knew the gentleman. Her reply was, "My dear, I have seen the young man going backwards and forwards to his duties." She went on to say that of course she should call after the wedding, but it would make a great deal of awkwardness, as it was her custom to do no more than leave cards on the wives of the minor canons.1 This phrase of "leaving cards" always reminds me of a story, which may be in Joe Miller, but we tell it of а distinguished ecclesiastical neighbor. He had a new groom, fresh from one of the racingstables, who was to accompany him one day in a long round of leave-taking calls, and was sent into the house before starting to get some cards. When they reached the last house, the order came, "Leave two cards here, James," and the reply followed, "I can't, my lord; there's only the ace of spades left." 4th. The papers are enthusiastic about Persimmon, or rather of the Prince of Wales, at the Derby. Nothing succeeds like success, and the prince is popular, so that even we who for local reasons wished "Tueful" (as we call him) to win, take our beating philosophically. But why should the Stock Exchange burst out into singing "God bless the Prince of Wales?" Could it be that these gentlemen were interested in turf reform, and foresaw in the prince's good fortune, with a horse of his own breeding, a good time coming in which everything should be straight and aboveboard? It is not rac 1 Aunt Julia would evidently have agreed with the dean, who used to mention the minor canons in his prayers with the addition-"or even these, O Lord, are Thy creatures."-ED. Cornhill. the misery it leads to, that offends thoughtful people. Everybody has read "Esther Waters," with its scenes of sordid tragedy. If the Prince of Wales were to discountenance heavy betting, a great deal of good might be done. For betting, like drinking, though a natural taste, is much under the influence of fashion. The "Paget Papers" contain a letter from the last Prince of Wales who won the Derby, in which he speaks of drunkenness in these engaging terms: "The rest were bad enough, God knows, except myself, though my every glass was a bumper to your health. I can safely swear I never flinced one, dear Arthur, and you well know I am not even upon indifferent occasions a shirker. Since that day the old girl has never ceased being tipsy twice a day," etc. We have moved away from those days, and not long ago one of the royal princes spoke of drunkenness as "the only enemy England had to fear." If the Prince of Wales would only say that now of gambling! Lordës may finden other manner play Honest enough to drive the day away, said Chaucer, and he was brought up at court. 6th.-Old Juniper is dead. He called in the village carpenter last night to receive directions about his funeral and to make his will. The poor here are very cautious not to employ the gentry in these testamentary matters, as they fear the knowledge of their little sar ings might impede the flow of charity. Tom, who is a precentor and wears! surplice in church like Sir Thomas More, whom he much respects, used to make a point of the choir being present at all funerals. But one spring an epidemic so increased the mortali that he got tired, and the sixth corp was condemned to be buried plain. now the vicar summons a few bos from the school; and certainly sing the psalm very much lightens and seems to Christianize the service. One has to see a country funeral to appreciate the real luxury of woe. The de all ceased may have been all that was disagreeable and degraded, and his death may be acknowledged on hands to be a good riddance, but the decencies must be respected. The mourners walk behind the bier in a longer or shorter procession of pairs, a man to the right with a woman on his left arm, and a handkerchief in his free hand. The exact position of the handkerchief varies with the locality; here it is pressed to the right cheek. In the church they remain seated, leaning forward in the ecstasy of uncontrollable grief during the whole service; then the procession is reformed. This is Bacon's "custom copulate and conjoined," and a mighty power it is, and perhaps in a dim way it makes for righteousness. On the Sunday following the burial all the mourners that have not scattered to distant homes come to morning prayer, where they expect some pulpit reference and an appropriate hymn. 9th. Sophia's birthday. It is desperate work finding presents in the country. However, at - – I picked up a rather pretty piece of mosiac binding, which I have had filled with writingpaper to make an album. To begin the book I have penned a few verses which at the moment please me: This dapple-burnished skin,— Yet were it well should one, Within the old covering lay So haply pitying Our fond mechanic lore, Might breathe, the heart once more I have long meditated keeping an album myself of another sort, a commonplace book, what Milton calls a "topick-folio." This is one of those resolutions that come with every first of January, and too often go with it; though a very fat volume lying here on the table has its first few pages filled with the harvest of several new beginnings. Laziness has something to do with the irresolution; the habit of reading in the Balfour position perhaps more; more still the conviction at the moment that if a passage is very good there is small risk of forgetting it (a terrible delusion!); but most of all that paralyzing sentence in Marcus Aurelius, "No longer delude thyself; thou wilt never read thine own notes, nor the extracts from books which thou wast reserving for thy old age" (iii.14). 10th-The cuckoo to-day has a decided hiccough. Saw some young partridges as I drove in to The barber was more interesting than usual. He has received a commission from some distinguished person to count how many light and how many dark haired people he operates upon in a month. The theory, as he propounded it, was that the dark-haired people were clever, but weak, and the light-haired strong and foolish, and that having been for centuries oppressed by superior force, the aboriginal black-haired folks are now coming to the front again. He called them Hibernian (query Iberian). "Shy-traffickers, the dark Iberians come." Lunched at club. Talk turned on eccentric wills. Dr. had a friend who picked up an old gentleman's hat in Piccadilly, and before returning it, wiped off the dirt, which so delighted the old gentleman that he asked for the young man's card, and left him his fortune. The legatee was killed in the Soudan three months after. The moral seems to be, Have polite relations, and inherit the consequences of their virtue. 11th.-Went to P.'s wedding. Everything went happily, and everybody seemed contented. There was an extempore sermon, which began by dividing itself into three heads; and this a little frightened me, but the heads proved to be without tails. The service itself is one of the best in the Prayerbook, being short and to the purpose; but it would be better still for a few slight changes. For example, the |