then exercised upon the nominal Christians; such was the case also in Italy. Thus persecuted in every country under the influence of the see of Rome, the Jews at the era of the reformation eagerly flocked toward the rising protestant states, where they were at least sure of personal safety. This was more especially the case in Holland, where they were equitably treated, and where they are now exceedingly

numerous.

Although no repeal of the edict for their banishment had taken place, the Jews entered into some negotiations with Oliver Cromwell for their return to England, but which do not appear to have led to any result. At the time of the restoration they came in, in small numbers, without exciting any particular notice, and have ever since remained unmolested. In 1753, an act was passed to facilitate their naturalization, but it was speedily repealed, and though popular feeling is less strong at present on the subject, the attempt to place them upon the same footing as other British subjects, though several times made, has been unsuccessful.

In the course of the last and the present centuries the condition of the Jews in European countries has been greatly ameliorated. Maria Theresa of Austria, and, after her, most of the German states, have granted them equal privileges with Christians; in France they enjoy every civil right; in Poland they form the only middle class, and are found engaged in agriculture and manufactures; in Italy, Spain, and Portugal, they now reside unmolested, and in many of the British colonies (as Malta, Gibraltar, and Jamaica), they are among the principal merchants and traders. Indeed, Russia is the only civilized state where they are now subject to anything like their former restrictions, or are looked upon with much of the antipathy of former days. In Mohammedan countries, however, they are still an obnoxious sect, against whom the most improbable charges are readily credited, a circumstance frequently taken advantage of by the local governors.

As might be expected with regard to a people so widely scattered, the most contradictory statements of the number of the Jews have been made, few of them being anything more than mere conjecture. The most probable statement seems to be that of the Weimar Almanac, which gives a total of about 3,200,000, reckoning near 2,000,000 in Europe. 740,000 in Asia, 500,000 in Africa, and 5,000 in America.

CHAPTER XV.

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

SECTION I.-Colonial History.

SEVERAL unsuccessful attempts to plant colonies within the limits of the United States were made in the sixteenth century; but no permanent settlement was effected until the beginning of the seventeenth Before the close of that century, however, all the colonies composing the original thirteen states were established except one, that of Georgia

In the reign of Elizabeth of England, the whole country between the thirty-fourth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude, received the name of Virginia, in honor of the queen. In the next reign it was granted by royal charter to two companies formed for the purpose of settling it, the southern portion, called South Virginia, to the London company, and the northern, called North Virginia, to the Plymouth company.

In 1607, one hundred and fifteen years from the discovery of San Salvador by Columbus, the first permanent settlement was made at Jamestown under the auspices of the London company: and thus commenced the planting of the colony of Virginia.

In 1613 the settlement of New York was begun by the Dutch, on the island of New York, then called Manhattan. The same year, a naval force from Virginia compelled the Dutch to acknowledge the sovereignty of the king of England: but it was not until 1664 that the colony was finally conquered and occupied by the English.

In 1620 the colony of Plymouth was planted by English independents, who had for some years been settled in Holland. Two unsuccessful attempts had been previously made to form settlements in New England, one by the Plymouth company in 1607, at the mouth of the Kennebec river; the other, a little later by the celebrated Capt. John Smith, the father of the Virginia colony.

In 1628 the Massachusetts colony was established by a company under a grant of lands from the Plymouth company. The first settlement was at Salem. Shortly after Charlestown, Boston, and the towns adjacent, were settled. In 1692, the Plymouth colony was incorporated with that of Massachusetts. Up to this time it had remained a voluntary association, governed by regulations made by the settlers among themselves.

In 1623, the settlement of New Hampshire was begun at the mouth of the Piscataqua river, and subsequently at Dover, Portsmouth, and Exeter. These three settlements continued distinct and independent governments until 1641, when they united in coming under the govern

ment of Massachusetts. In 1679 New Hampshire was by a royal ordinance erected into a separate province.

New Jersey was first settled by the Danes about the year 1624; and shortly after some Dutch families planted themselves in the vicinity of New York. In 1655, Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New York, conquered the country, which was finally occupied by the English on the conquest of New York in 1664.

Delaware was first occupied by the Swedes in 1627. The Dutch, however, disputed the possession of it with them, from the first, and in 1655 obtained and held it until it fell into the power of the English along with New York and New Jersey in 1664. Most of the Swedes, after the Dutch conquest, left the country.

Maine was settled in 1639. The first town founded was York. This province was united to Massachusetts in 1652, and so continued until 1820.

Maryland was settled in 1634 by English Roman catholics, under a patent to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, by whom a colony was planted at the mouth of the Potomac, at a place called St. Mary.

The first settlement in Connecticut was begun in 1635 at Hartford and its vicinity, by a company from Massachusetts. In 1638, New Haven was settled, and with the towns around it was called the colony of New Haven; but in 1662, it was united to the colony of Connecticut. The settlement of Rhode Island dates from 1636, when Roger Williams, banished from Massachusetts on account of his religious principles (which were those of the baptists), established the town of Provilence. Rhode Island itself was occupied in 1638, by persons also driven from Massachusetts by religious persecution. Roger Williams was a man far in advance of his time. To him belongs the eminent glory of giving the first practical example of religious toleration. The Providence and Rhode Island colonies were politically united in

644.

North Carolina was occupied by settlers from Virginia between the years 1640 and 1650. They established themselves on lands north of Albemarle sound. It became a distinct colony in 1729.

In 1670 the settlement of South Carolina was begun at Port Royal; but the colony removed the next year, and founded a town which was called Charleston; but in 1680 this place was abandoned, and the settlement of the present city of Charleston commenced.

Pennsylvania was settled in 1682, under a royal grant to William Penn. Thi colony had a more rapid and prosperous growth than any of the other colonies, owing partly to the later date of its settlement when the obstacles to colonization had become less, and partly to the mildness and equity of its laws and administration.

Georgia was not colonized till 1733. It was then settled under a patent granted to twenty-one trustees, for the purpose of giving land gratuitously to indigent subjects of Great Britain. Liberal donations were made by benevolent persons to defray the expense of transporting and providing for the settlers. The first place founded was Savannah.

The limits of this sketch will not permit any details in regard to the history of the separate colonies, the dates of whose settlement have

now been given A few matters of more general interest can only be noted.

In 1643, the colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven, formed a union by articles of confederation, under the style of "The United Colonies of New England." To protect themselves against the Indians, and against the claims and encroachments of the Dutch of New Netherlands (as New York was then called), were the motives of this confederation. Rhode Island, refusing to merge her political existence under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, was excluded from the union. The conquest of New York, New Jersey, and Delaware, in 1664, brought the whole country, from Maine to Carolina, under the dominion of the English.

In 1675 New England was afflicted by a memorable war with the Indians, called King Philip's war, from the name of an Indian sachem of great abilities, who combined the Indian tribes against the English. The capture and death of Philip the following year put an end to the war, in which New England suffered the loss of six hundred men, the flower of her strength, twelve or thirteen towns destroyed, and six hundred dwellings consumed.

In 1676 a rebellion broke out in Virginia, known as "Bacon's rebellion" from the name of the leader, an able and ambitious man, who seized, and for some months maintained, the supreme authority. His death put an end to the civil war. The causes of this rebellion were oppressive restrictions on commerce, and heavy taxes imposed by Governor Berkley.

During the reign of James II. the New England colonies were severely oppressed. The king revoked the charters and assumed the government into his own hands, appointing Sir Edmund Andros governor. Under his arbitrary and tyrannical administration the colonies suffered until the accession of William and Mary in 1689.

The news of the abdication of James, and the accession of William and Mary to the English throne was the signal for a revolution in New England. Sir Edmund Andros was deposed and imprisoned. Connecticut and Rhode Island resumed their charters and were allowed to retain them. Massachusetts obtained a new charter, in some respects preferable to its former one.

In New York, where Sir Edmund Andros had formerly been the tyrannical governor, and where his successors had generally followed his example, the discontents of the people led likewise to a revolution, which at length resulted in a constitution; but the collisions between the colonial assemblies and the royal governors retarded the restoration of peace and prosperity to the colony.

It will be proper here to advert to the forms of government which prevailed in the several colonies. These were of three sons-the charter; the royal; and the proprietary.

1. The CHARTER governments. These were confined to New Eng land. By their charters the people of these colonies were expressly entitled to all the privileges of British born subjects; and invested with the legislative, judicial, and executive powers of government. They chose their governors and legislative bodies, and established their own

ourts. Their legislatures were, however, restrained from passing any laws contrary to those of England. The crown claimed the right of revoking the charters; but this was denied by the colonists, unless they were forfeited for cause. They were sometimes declared forfeited, or forcibly revoked, as we have just seen in the reign of James II. The disputes arising on this subject were one of the causes of the revolution.

2. The ROYAL governments. These were Virginia, New York, and subsequently, North and South Carolina and New Jersey. In these colonies, the people had legislative assemblies of their own choosing; but the governor and council were appointed by the crown, who had a negative on all proceedings of the popular assemblies, and also the appointment of the judges and most of the administrative officers. The sources of grievance in these colonies were the arbitrary conduct of the governors, and the claim of absolute power by the crown to negative the acts of the assemblies.

3. The PROPRIETARY governments. These were Maryland and Pennsylvania, and, at first, the Carolinas and Jerseys. In these colonies, the proprietors, or individuals to whom the territories had been granted by the crown, were empowered, under certain limitations reserved by the crown, to establish civil governments and to make laws. There were in most cases colonial assemblies, partly summoned by the proprietors, and partly chosen by the people. Perpetual quarrels arose between the people and the proprietors, chiefly respecting the prerogative exercised by the latter of repealing or negativing the acts of the assemblies.

At the time of the accession of William III., in 1689, the population of the colonies is estimated to have exceeded two hundred thousand. There was but little trade or commerce except with England, whence the colonists derived all their merchandise, sending thither in return tobacco, pultry, some pork, and fish. Agriculture was the principal employment; and the manufactures in use were principally limited to the most common articles of necessity and convenience, and these were mostly imported from England.

The year 1692 is signalized in the annals of New England by the commencement of the trials for witchcraft. This fanatic delusion went on increasing until about twenty persons were publicly executed; one hundred and fifty were in prison, and two hundred more were accused. The phrensy then subsided as suddenly as it had sprung up and spread. The principal theatre of these deplorable scenes was in Salem, Massachusetts, and the neighboring towns, though there were some cases in Connecticut.

The English revolution, which placed William III. on the throne, while it freed the colonies from the oppressions they endured during the reign of his predecessor, involved them in the calamities of the war between France and England, which lasted from 1690 to the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The French in Canada directed an expedition against the English colonies, instigating the Indians to join them in their hostilities. In return, an arinainent was fitted out by Massachusetts for the invasion of the French settlements. Port Royal in Nova