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to hard work before the mast. Indeed, when we consider the highly drawn pictures, and loose language of the novels written a century ago, it cannot be doubted that prose fiction has very greatly improved in our day, and that it has become a much better school of morals in its examples and its teachings.

In concluding these remarks upon the various forms of discourse, it must be observed that the rules of rhetorical invention apply to them all, and that their expression in language is governed by the same general laws; with the exception of poetry, which, in its metre and versification, is constructed according to the laws of Prosody, one of the branches of Grammar. Thus, in form, Poetry is not strictly included in Rhetoric.

Bearing this in mind, we come, at length, to consider the methods of constructing the general form of discourse, which has thus been divided into particular varieties, and of presenting this discourse to others.

The processes now to be explained include every step in the preparation of a discourse, from the first conception of its subject or theme to its absolute delivery, or other public expression, to a hearer or reader.

Having thus presented to the student the range and scope of discourse in its numerous varieties, we are prepared to enter upon this new and most important inquiry.

CHAPTER VII.

INVENTION.

WE come now, after a due consideration of the history and derived meaning of Rhetoric, after explaining its relations to Esthetics, and after describing the various forms of discourse constructed by its means, to an examination of its functions, in this process of construction-i. e., to a division of labour in the act of building up a discourse.

These functions have been reduced, by modern rhetoricians, to three; and have been named: I. INVENTION. II. ARRANGEMENT. III. STYLE. The philosophy of this general division has been already explained. To illustrate the methods of their use, let the subject of the discourse be presented to the writer, as

Man is mortal.

He must first invent, that is, find arguments and display facts in proof of this assertion, and fairly express the moral and domestic lessons growing out of such a momentous assertion, with such other important considerations as may occur to his mind.

Second. He must arrange these arguments and facts, in the order best suited to accomplish his purpose; must see that the links in the chain of reasoning are clearly connected; in a word, that the thoughts, which he has invented, are clearly, concisely, and properly connected.

Third. These fruits of his invention, and the methods of his arrangement, must be clearly and appropriately set forth in language. This is the peculiar function of that division of Rhetoric called STYLE.

It hardly need be remarked, that although these divisions of Rhetoric are quite distinct from each other, so that each process is really independent of the others, yet their combination alone produces any true rhetorical result, so that, for a public manifestation, they may be said to depend upon each other for existence. Thus, we may invent, or collect all the necessary material for constructing the discourse, and we may in our minds arrange all the parts of the fair structure, to no purpose, at least, in the instruction of others, which is the primary design of discourse,— if we give no utterance to our thoughts in style. And what would style or the mere expression in language be, even the readiest resources of speech, with all its forces, and its ornaments, if we had no subject-matter of discourse invented, and no arrangement of the crude materials lying around, which we had produced by our invention?

And here, before going farther, let us recall one portion of the remark of Dr. Campbell, which has been already mentioned, viz., that "Rhetoric holds of Logic by the sense." This finds its truth in the Invention of Discourse, for the invention implies the finding of Logical propositions and arguments containing and enforcing the thoughts which we have prepared in other words, all the operations of the

reason.

We shall especially attempt, in this, which is confessedly the most difficult part of Rhetoric, to render the study as simple as possible. Particularly is it important to rid ourselves, as much as we can, of the great number of technical words which formed the rhetorical nomenclature of the ancients, and have been brought down, undiminished in number, and useless from the change which has taken place in science and its classification, to modern times. They are more difficult than the things for which they stand, and modern usage expresses their meaning in simpler and better words. The "naming of our tools,” in the satirical words of Hudibras, is by no means so important as to know how to use them; and such changes have happened to Rhetoric since the days of classic nomenclature, that both names and instruments are entirely changed.

When it is designed to construct a discourse, the general nature of whose subject is understood, the

first thing to be done is to ponder upon that general and perhaps vague subject, until it resolve itself into distinct shape, and assume a distinct and developing character. By developing character is meant, one readily admitting of analysis, by which we may arrive at new facts, proofs of these facts, and prominent results of these facts. By a strange but invariable process, the mind, in thus dwelling upon a general subject, finds the nebulous particles of thought aggregating themselves into symmetrical forms, and shaping themselves into beautiful and instructive discourse. Let us then consider the subject as the germ of dis

course.

(52.) The Invention of the Subject.

In the choice of the subject of a discourse, invention plays its first and important part, and here much of the difficulty and confusion of writing compositions have their source; by a want of the proper understanding of the subject. The subject is to be chosen with reference to the object or design of the discourse; it is to contain in itself, perhaps, a new conception, the germ of the future discourse; and it is to attract by its name and appearance the interests of many in the discourse itself. There are many persons who have a special talent in selecting, or more properly in inventing subjects.

And here it should be observed, in some cases the

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