CHAPTER IV.

OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF DISCOURSE.

(30.) Aristotle's Division of Oratory.

ALL our examples and illustrations, by means of which we may consider the manner of constructing discourse, as to its invention, arrangement, and style, are to be found in the varieties of discourse already existing, which form the wealth of standard English literature. It will be better, at this point, therefore, to mention the different kinds of writing according to their form and purpose, and to give definitions and illustrations of each.

Most of these kinds of discourse are well known to persons of even little reading, and a few simple explanatory words will enable us to bear them in mind, to aid us when we come to the subjects of Invention and Style. From their analysis, indeed, we shall become better able to understand the design of invention in discourse, as we observe how this design is carried out by the distinguished masters of English

and American literature. And here we can have but little aid from the ancient rhetoricians, since in their time discourse meant principally oratory, and all divisions of it had reference to a speaker and a hearer. Things are now entirely changed. Printing has made written discourse the great general subject of rhetorical rules, and oratory but one subordinate class. It is true that Aristotle lays down a few rules as to the difference between the style to be used in writing, and the style to be used in pleading; but in this case his written discourse is one originally designed to be pronounced as an oration, and afterwards to be consulted for reference; and his pleading is extemporaneous speaking, in which the circumstances and the occasion prompt thoughts, words, and action. With the view that every discourse is an oration, he has ranged all kinds of orations under the three heads-Demonstrative, Judicial, and Deliberative—using these words with significations not unlike those we apply to them

now.

Demonstrative oratory he asserts is that which we only hear-with regard to the points of which we are not constituted judges—and it has relation to the present time; we take for granted what is said, and receive it as of necessity true, because it is supposed to come from an informed and skilful demonstrator. If, besides merely hearing and receiving in present time, the hearer is also to judge of some things that

are already past, as the jurymen judge, in our law courts, of the evidence, the speeches of counsel, and the charge of the judge, then these speeches and charge constitute judicial oratory.

Again, if the hearer is to judge of something to come—that is, to frame his future plans or conduct by the oration which he hears, this is called deliberative oratory.

To the demonstrative oratory, he says, it belongs to praise or dispraise, and thus to establish the person or action as honourable or dishonourable: it belongs to judicial oratory to accuse and to defend, as in law, and thus to prove the person or cause just or unjust and to deliberative oratory it belongs to prove a thing-with an eye to its future uses-as profitable or unprofitable. At a glance it will appear that all kinds of modern oratory might really be ranged under these three heads.

Aristotle has given us a full treatise upon the subjects, the means, and the ends of these different kinds of discourse, which, historically considered shows us the state of rhetorical science in that day, and is, for this reason, quite valuable; and, as applied to oratory alone, it is not without application at the present day; but so various and different are the divisions of discourse as applied to various ends, in modern times, that we must seek a more extended list of the different kinds of writing: and one which includes the

various kinds of printed discourse. We shall not attempt to mention every kind of writing, for this task would be impossible; but, with a glance at the philosophy of its variety, we shall give a few of the simpler forms and illustrate them. In doing this we shall begin by laying down the principles of a general classification.

(31.) Logical Division of the kinds of Discourse.

And here it is necessary to keep in view the principle according to which we mean to divide; the division should be logical, and the different parts or members should be independent of each other. Thus, if we state poetry to be one kind of discourse, and epistolary writing to be another, we shall be evidently wrong, since letters may be and are frequently written in poetry, and thus the two are at once confounded; so, too, prose fiction, or novels, are often written in a series of letters. Now we may choose many principles of division according to which to classify the different kinds of writing.

Thus, according to the form, we divide discourse into poetry and prose: for it is evident that the subject-matter of poetry, although usually of a higher order than that of prose, may be presented in prose; and that the peculiarity of poetry, in this regard, lies in the form.

Again, according to the effect which we design to produce on the mind of a hearer-keeping this always in view as a part of our theme-we may divide discourse, whether written or extemporaneous, yet designed for delivery, into oratory, which is observant of the character and mind of a hearer who is present and known, and written discourse, designed only to be read with the eye to inform the mind of those who may be unknown to the writer.

And written discourse, in prose, may be divided, according to the subject itself and its just treatment, into Letters, History, Biography, Essays, and Prose Fiction. The number may be increased by subdivisions, but it is thought that under the genera or classes mentioned most forms of discourse will range themselves.

In this part of the work we shall principally confine ourselves to the clear definition and illustration of these various classes.

Keeping in mind these distinctions, let us begin with Poetry, in the first-mentioned division, which, it has been said, differs from Prose mainly in form. It constitutes a large division of discourse.

(32.) Poetry.

The question has been often asked, What is Poetry? and if no simple definition has been found, it is be