lections of fresh water in the world. They are distinguished by certain general features, being long, winding, embosomed in mountain scenery, and drained by rivers. The chief of them are as follows

CLIMATE.—Though varying much in different latitudes and at different elevations of the surface, the climate of Italy is, as a rule, extremely pleasant. The mountains and the sea temper the heat of summer; and the cold of winter becomes excessive only occasionally, and in the N. In Central Italy ice and snow are almost peculiar to the mountain summits, while in S. Italy they are unknown, and numbers of tropical plants flourish in the open air.

Obs. The Sirocco-a hot and stifling wind from Africa; the Tramontana-a cold, dry, piercing wind from the Apennines; and the insidious and deadly Malaria, which creeps up from the maritime plains and the shores of certain small inland lakes, are sad drawbacks to this otherwise radiant and joyous climate.

PRODUCTIONS.-The characteristic productions of Italy are rice, maize, wheat; grapes, figs, olives, and oranges; silk, and hemp; marble, alabaster, and sulphur.

Obs. 1. The Vine flourishes everywhere in Italy, but the wines are inferior to those of Spain and France. The celebrated Italian Muscat wine, "Lacryma Christi," is made from grapes grown on the volcanic soil of Mount Vesuvius, and is, therefore, very limited in quantity. It is made both red and white.

Obs. 2. The Olive is extensively cultivated in the Etruscan and Neapolitan States. The best olive oil is that of Lucca.

PEOPLE AND LANGUAGES.-In 1876 the People of Italy numbered 27,769,475, the bulk of them being Italians-i.e., a mixed race of Latins, Ostrogoths, Longobards, and Normans. Italian is the language everywhere spoken, but there are marked differences of dialect in different parts.

Obs. In addition to Italians, there are some German Colonists in various parts of N. Italy, and a few Albanians and Greeks in Apulia. About 5 millions of the people speak German, Albanian, or Greek.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-Italy, for administrative purposes, is divided into 16 Compartments; and these are subdivided into 69 Provinces, which are named after the chief town in each. These compartments and provinces are given in the table below.

G

16 COMPARTMENTS.

69 PROVINCES AND TOWNS.

I. N. ITALY.-4 COMPARTMENTS, AND 22 PROVINCES.

Alessandro, Cuneo, Novara, Turin.

Genoa, Porto Maurizio.

Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Cremona, Mantua, Milan, Pavia,
Sondrio.

Belluno, Padua, Rovigo, Treviso, Udine, Venice, Verona,
Vicenza.

II. CENTRAL ITALY.-5 COMPARTMENTS, AND 22 PROVINCES.

5. Emilia

6. Umbria

7. Marches

8. Tuscany

9. Rome..

Bologna, Ferrara, Forli, Modena, Parma, Piacenza, Ravenna,
Regio Emilia.

Perugia.

Ancona, Ascoli, Piceno, Macerata, Pesaro, and Urbino.

Arezzo, Florence, Grosetto, Leghorn, Lucca, Massa and
Carrara, Pisa, Siena.

Rome.

III. S. ITALY.-5 COMPARTMENTS, AND 16 PROVINCES. 10. Abruzzi & Molise..

15. Sicily..

Chieti, Teramo, Aquila, Campobasso.

Benevento, Naples, Salerno, Avellino, Caserta.
Foggia, Bari, Lecce.

Potenza.

Cosenza, Reggio, Catanzaro.

IV. ISLANDS.-2 COMPARTMENTS, AND 9 PROVINCES.

.......

16. Sardinia..

Caltanisetta, Catania, Girgenti, Messina, Palermo, Syracuse,
Trapani.
Cagliari, Sassari.

NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The eight most populous towns at the census of 1876 were, Naples (449,301), Rome (235,302), Milan (260,997), Palermo (228,483), Turin (213,937), Florence (169,588), Genoa (162,675), and Venice (126,239).

Obs. Rome, the capital of the kingdom of Italy, and the ecclesiastical metropolis of Roman Catholic Christendom, is situated on both banks of the Tiber, at about 18 m. from its mouth. It is one of the most remarkable cities in the world, being famous for its proud historical associations, for the number and magnificence of its monuments, for its precious antiquities, for its rich collections of objects of art, and for the number and beauty of its churches. St. Peter's is the largest and most magnificent church in the world, and the Vatican, the residence of the Pope, is one of the largest palaces in Europe. The manufactures of Rome include jewelry, articles of vertu, musical strings, &c., &c.

The chief ports are Genoa, Leghorn, Naples, on the W. coast; Brindisi, Ancona, Venice, on the E. coast; Palermo, Trapani, Catania, and Messina, in Sicily; and Cagliari, in Sardinia.

The principal industrial centres are Naples (macaroni, vermicelli, silk stuffs, and bijouterie), Rome (mosaics, jewelry, musical strings), Venice (cloth of gold and silver, velvets, silks, jewelry), Florence (silk, porcelain, straw hats, mosaics), Milan (silks, velvets, books, jewelry, cutlery), Lucca (olive oil), Turin (the chief entrepôt of the silk trade of N. Italy), Bologna, Brescia, Alessandro (silks, linens, woollens), and Cremona (violins).

Other places of note are Lodi, Arcole, Marengo, Rivoli, Magenta, and Solferino, famous battle-fields.

INDUSTRIES.-The bulk of the Italian people follow Agricultural

and Pastoral pursuits, being engaged chiefly in the production of corn, oil, wine, silk, fat cattle, and dairy stuff. The Manufactures comprise silk, cotton, and woollen fabrics; jewelry, glass, porcelain, straw hats, macaroni, and musical instruments.

Obs. The chief exports are silk, oil, spirits, corn, and sulphur; imports, tea, coffee, sugar, cotton and woollen goods, coals, iron, and hardware.

COMMUNICATIONS.-In Lombardy, and in N. Italy generally, the Turnpike Roads are very good; but in S. Italy they are insufficient and deplorably bad. There are numerous Canals, but they are not of much commercial value; about 4,888 m. of Railway; and nearly 17,000 m. of Telegraphic Lines. Railway-tunnels through the Alps connect Italy with France and Switzerland.

GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The Government of Italy is a constitutional Monarchy, and the Religion of the great mass of the people Roman Catholicism. The higher Education of the people is well provided for by the 22 Universities which Italy possesses; but elementary Education is still at a low ebb.

THE REPUBLIC OF SAN MARINO.-One of the smallest and oldest states in Europe lies on the N. border of the compartment Marches, and is enclosed completely by Italian territory. Its area is 24 sq. m., its pop. 7816. The place owes its origin to St. Marinus, who in the fifth century settled himself there.

SWITZERLAND.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Latitude. Between 45° 50′ and 47° 50' N.

Longitude. Between 5° 58' and 10° 30′ E. Area. 15,976 sq. m.

POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-Switzerland lies near the middle of Central Europe. It is bounded on the

N. by Germany. E. by Austria. S. by Italy. S.W., W., and N.W. by France. Obs. Switzerland possesses no seaboard.

SURFACE.-Except in the N. and N.W., Switzerland is everywhere mountainous. No other part of Europe is so elevated as this, and none so diversified in character. The chief surface

features are

1. Mountains, the chief of which lie in the centre and S. of the country, and belong to the Alpine system, radiating from the huge knot which forms the St. Gothard region. They are

a. The Pennine or Valais Alps, which trend S.W., on the S. side of the Rhone, extending from Mt. St. Gothard to the Col de la Seigne, S. of Mt. Blanc, a distance of 100 m. Forming the most elevated portion of the whole Alpine system, they culminate in Mt. Blanc (France), and embrace the gigantic masses of Monte Rosa (15,217 ft.), the highest point in Switzerland,

the Dom (14,951 ft.), the Matterhorn or Mt. Cervin (14,750 ft.), and numerous other summits clad with perpetual snow.

Obs. Upwards of 30 Passes cross this formidable barrier, the most important being the Great St. Bernard and the Simplon.

b. The Bernese Alps, which run S.W. on the N. of the Rhône, from Mt. St. Gothard to the shores of Lake Leman. The countless ramifications of the system form the "Bernese Oberland," the most varied and picturesque region in Europe. The Finster Aarhorn (14,026 ft.) is their highest point; but they embrace also the massive Jungfrau (13,671 ft.), and many other almost equally famous summits.

Obs. The chief Passes of this system are the Gemmi and the Grimsel.

c. The Lepontine Alps, which extend E. by S. from Mt. St. Gothard to the Piz Bernina, on the S.E. frontier of Switzerland, a distance of about 100 m. This section of the Alps embraces the Ticino, Adula, and Bernina groups, and culminates in the Piz Bernina (13,294 ft.). It also includes among its many remarkable points the Piz Valrhein or Adula (11,148 ft.), and Camotsch (10,833 ft.).

Obs. Of the numerous Passes by which these mountains are traversed, those of St. Gothard,1 Bernardino, and Splugen are the most celebrated.

d. The Alps of the four Forest Cantons, which spread to the N. and N.W. of Mt. St. Gothard and occupy the region between the upper courses of the rivers Aar, and Reuss. The Galenstock (11,956 ft.) is their chief summit, but the Sustenhorn, and the Thierberg in the same vicinity, are not much inferior in height.

Obs. The chief Passes among these mountains are the Brunig, and the Susten. e. The Swiss Alps or Tödi Range, which project from Mt. St. Gothard towards the N.E., and occupy the region between the upper courses of the rivers Reuss, and Rhine. They culminate in Mt. Tödi (11,887 ft.).

Obs. 1. Both these, and the Alps of the Forest Cantons, are detachments of the Lepontine section of the great mountain barrier.

Obs. 2. Along the N. W. frontier runs the long chain of the Jura Mountains.

2. Plains, of which the chief is the

Plain of Switzerland, which stretches from the shores of Lake Geneva in the S.W. to those of Lake Constance in the N.E., a distance of 135 m. In its widest parts it is 50 m. broad. Its surface is mostly undulating, but in places it is even hilly.

3. Valleys, which are most interesting and important features in the surface of Switzerland. The chief of them are the

a. Valley of the Upper Rhône, which lies between the Valais and Bernese Alps and extends from Mt. St. Gothard to the Lake of Geneva, a distance of nearly 100 m., and includes the lesser vales of Visp, Leuk, etc.

b. Valley of the Upper Rhine, which extends from Mt. St. Gothard N.E. and N., to Lake Constance, a distance of about 90 m., and includes the celebrated gorges of the Via Mala,3 and Pfeffers.

c. Engadine or Valley of the Upper Inn, which lies between the Bernina and Albula Alps and stretches N.E. from the Septimer Pass to the Tyrol, a distance of 60 m. It includes about 20 tributary valleys and is one of the most elevated depressions among the Alps.

DRAINAGE.-Switzerland sends her copious waters N. W., towards the North Sea, and S.W., S.E., and E., towards the Mediterranean,

1 The St. Gothard mass is now pierced by a railway-tunnel (1880).

2 The four Cantons are Uri, Schwyts, Unterwalden, and Lucerne.

3 The Via Mala is probably the grandest ravine in Switzerland. It leads to the Splugen and Bernardino passes, between the villages of Thusis and Splugen.

Adriatic, and Black Seas respectively. The chief draining agents are the

1. Rivers, which belong to the basin of the

a. North Sea, viz., the Rhine, and Aar.

b. Mediterranean, viz., the Rhône.

c. Adriatic, viz., the Ticino.

d. Black Sea, viz., the Inn.

Obs. 1. The Rhine, (see p. 20, obs. 3). It is only that upper course of the Rhine which lies S. W. of its junction with the Ill that belongs exclusively to Switzerland; while, on the other hand, by far the greater part of Switzerland belongs to the valley of the Rhine.

Obs. 3. The Aar is the principal river of Switzerland. It rises in the Aar Glacier on the Grimsel Pass, and drains the whole country from the Bernese Alps to the Rhine, and from the Jura to the Glatt. It flows to the N.W. and N.E., over a course of 170 m., and falls into the Rhine midway between Lake Constance and Basle. It traverses the lakes Brienz, and Thun. It receives, on its left bank, the tributaries Sarine, and Zihl, which bring with them the waters of Lakes Neuchâtel, and Bienne; on its right bank, the Emmen, Suhr, Reuss, and Limmat, which drain nearly all the other lakes. The Aar is navigable from lake Thun to the Rhine.

Obs. 3. The Rhône (p. 20, obs. 4), only that portion of the Upper Rhône which lies between the Valais and Bernese Alps, belongs exclusively to Switzerland. Its chief Swiss tributaries are the Visp, Borgne, and Dranse, which it receives on its left bank.

Obs. 4. The Ticino has only its upper course in Switzerland. Rising among the S. defiles of St. Gothard and flowing E., S. E., and S. W., it falls into the N.E. corner of Lake Maggiore. When it issues thence it is an Italian stream, a tributary of the Po. Its chief Swiss tributary is the Moesa, which it receives on its left bank, near Bellinzona.

Obs. 5. The Inn rises in lake Lugni, at the extremity of the Upper Engadine, flows N.E. into Austria, traverses the Tyrol, and after a course of 320 m., only about 50 m. of which are in Switzerland, falls into the Danube at Passau.

2. Lakes, which in Switzerland not only serve as draining agents, but also add to the grand and interesting scenery of this country one of its chief and most attractive charms. The best known and most important of them are those in a. E. Switzerland, viz., Constance, Wallensee, Zurich, Lucerne, and Zug. b. W. Switzerland, viz., Brienz, Thun, Neuchâtel, Bienne, and Geneva.

Obs. 1. The Lake of Constance lies between Switzerland, Germany, and Austria, and is 40 m. long, and 10 m. wide. Towards its N. W. extremity it divides into two arms, which are called the "Lower Lake" and the "Lake of Uberlingen." This and the three following lakes are navigated by a large fleet of steamboats. Obs. 2. Lake of Zurich is famous for its picturesque scenery. It is 34 m. long, and 2 broad in its widest parts. Its shores are undulating, thickly peopled, and richly cultivated. Zurich stands at the N. end of the lake.

Obs. 3. Lake Lucerne, is the most irregular shaped, but also, perhaps, the most beautiful, lake in Switzerland. Its scenery is generally grand, but it is especially so at the S. end. It is 24 m. long, and from a mile to 2 m. broad. The town of Lucerne stands on the W. bank, near the centre of the lake.

Obs. 4. Lake of Geneva or Lake Leman, the largest of the Swiss lakes, lies between Switzerland, France, and Geneva. It is crescent-shaped, having its extremities turned towards the S.E. and S. respectively. The N. shore is 56 m. long, and the S. 44 m.; it is about 8 m. broad in its widest part, and 1,200 ft. deep. The town of Geneva stands at its S.W. corner.

3. Glaciers. It is estimated that the tops and sides and valleys of the Alps include no less than 1,177 sq. m. of snow, névé, and ice surface; and as many as 1,100 distinct glaciers. Of this enormous frozen mass a large proportion is in Switzerland, and belongs chiefly to the Valais, Bernese, and Bernina Alps. The great Swiss ice-centres of these ranges are respectively Monte Rosa, the Finsteraarhorn, and the Bernina Piz.