COLONIAL POSSESSIONS.-Of the once splendid Colonial Empire of Spain, there remains only, in

1. Africa. The Presidios (Ceuta, Tetuan, &c.), on the N. Coast of Marocco. Annobon, Fernando Po, &c., in, and near, the Gulf of Guinea.

2. Asia and Oceania.-About half the Philippine Isles; the Ladrones or Marianne Islands; the Caroline Islands; and part of Borneo.

3. West Indies.-Part of the Virgin Isles, Cuba, and Porto Rico.

Obs. The total population of the Spanish Colonies is about 6 millions.

PLACES WITHIN THE PHYSICAL LIMITS OF SPAIN BUT POLITICALLY SEVERED FROM HER ARE,

1. Gibraltar, at the S. extremity of the Peninsula, and on the strait which connects the Atlantic with the Mediterranean. It was captured by the English, A.D. 1704, and has ever since formed an important part of the British Empire.

b. Andorra, a small republic in the S. valleys of the E. Pyrenees. Its area is about 600 sq.m. The people, who are of simple and primitive habits, number from 6,000 to 8,000 souls, and are occupied, mainly, in pastoral pursuits, and in the mining and manufacture of their iron. Andorra, the chief town, has a pop. of some 2,000.

PORTUGAL.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Latitude. Between 37° and 42° 8′ N.

Longitude. Between 6° and 10° W.

Area. 36,510 sq. m.

BOUNDARIES, AND POSITION.-Portugal occupies the W. and S.W. part of the Spanish peninsula. It is bounded on the

N. and E. by Spain. W. and S. by the Atlantic Ocean.

COASTS.-These include several excellent harbours, and some remarkable promontories. Their salient features are the

1. Capes, Mondego, Carvoeiro, Roca, Espichel, Sines, and St. Vincent, on the W.; Santa Maria on the S.

2. Inlets, viz., the Bays of Lisbon, Setubal, and Sines, on the W.

ISLANDS.-The Azores, and Madeira Isles (see p. 72).

SURFACE.-The surface of Portugal, like that of the peninsula in general, is mountainous, the chief mountains being continuations of the ranges which traverse the peninsula from E. to W. The Portuguese give special names to their portions of the great ranges, as Serra da Estrella, and Serra de Monchique to the W. extremities of the Castilian mountains, and the Sierra Morena, respectively.

DRAINAGE.-Portugal is mainly drained by the great rivers of the peninsula, the Douro, Tagus, and Guadalquivir, and their lower tributaries.

CLIMATE.-The climate is more genial and equable than that of the peninsula generally.

PRODUCTIONS.-The chief are Fruits-oranges, grapes, citrons, melons, figs, &c.; the most important mineral is salt.

Obs. The vineyards of the Upper Douro yield us our Port Wine; those in the vicinity of Lisbon, Bucellas, and Carcavellos.

PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE.-The People in the continental part of the kingdom are estimated at 4,057,538; they are of the same origin as the Spaniards, and their language differs from that of Spain only dialectically.

Obs. The population of the Azores is 261,746; that of the Madeira Isles 121,753.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-Portugal is divided into 7 Provinces, which are named from their geographical position. These are subdivided into 17 Districts, which are named from the chief towns in each. To these are added the 2 Provinces formed by the Azores and Madeira Islands respectively. These divisions are given in the following table:

:

NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The five most populous towns of Portugal are Lisbon (208,376), Oporto (89,194), Braga (19,514), Funchal (18,161), and Coimbra (18,147),

Obs. Lisbon, the metropolis, is near the mouth of the Tagus, and possesses a splendid harbour. Amongst its most handsome buildings are the Royal Palaces, the marble Aqueduct of Alcantara, and the old Cathedral. It is the naval port and arsenal of Portugal. A great part of the city was destroyed by the earthquake of 1875, when 16,000 persons perished.

The chief ports are Oporto, Lisbon, Setubal, and Faro.

The principal industrial centres are Lisbon-arms, porcelain, and jewelry; Oporto (jewelry and trinkets); Braga (firearms, jewelry, &c.); and Coimbra (earthenware, linen and woollen stuffs).

Other notable places are Busaco, Almeida, Rolica, Vimiera, Torres Vedras,

and Cintra, famous for their connexion with the English army and its exploits in the Peninsular War; and Coimbra, famous for its university. INDUSTRIES.-The culture of the vine, and the manufacture of wine form the chief branches of Portuguese industry. The Commerce has been about stationary for the past 12 years.

Obs, The chief exports are wine, fruits, cattle, wool, and cork; and the chief imports, cotton and woollen fabrics, iron goods, earthenware, grain, &c.

COMMUNICATIONS.—The communications are deficient both in quantity and quality. They include Highways, Railways, Telegraphs, and a few miles of Navigable Streams.

GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The Government is a constitutional Monarchy; the Religion is almost exclusively Roman Catholic; but there is toleration for other religions: Education is under State control, but attendance at the schools is very lax.

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL POSSESSIONS.-The colonial empire of the Portuguese is very considerable. It includes in

1. Asia.-Goa, Salcete, Daman, Diu, in Hindustan; Macao in China; Kambing, and parts of Timor, and Solor, in Malaysia.

2. Africa.-Cape Verde Islands; settlements, in Senegambia, and Guinea; the Islands St. Thomas, Principe, Angola, Benguela, Mossamedes, and Ambriz, on the W. coast; Mozambique, and Sofala, on the E. coast.

These possessions embrace a united area of upwards of 3,000,000 sq. m., and a pop. of 733,910.

ITALY.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Latitude. Between 36° 40′ and 46° 40'.

Longitude. Between 6° 32′ and 18° 32′ E.

Area. 114,380 sq. m. (including Sicily and Sardinia).

POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-Italy is situated in the S. of Europe; it is bounded on the

N. by Switzerland and Austria. N.E. by Austria. E., S., and W. by the Mediterranean. N.W. by France.

COASTS.-These are remarkably even and unbroken, and therefore deficient in good harbours. The chief features to be noted are the

Capes, Maestra, Leuca, Nau or Colonna, Rizzuto, and Spartivento, on the E.; Vaticano, Licosa, Campanella, Miseno, and Circello, on the W.

Inlets, The Gulfs of Venice, Manfredonia, Taranto, and Squillace, on the E. The Gulfs of Eufemia, Policastro, Salerno, Naples, Gaeta, and Genoa, on

the W.

Straits of Otranto, between Italy and Turkey; of Messina, between Italy and Sicily; of Piombino, between Italy and the Isle of Elba.

Obs. The famed rock Scylla, and the whirlpool Charybdis lie in the Strait of Messina.

ISLANDS. The islands of Italy constitute more than a sixth part of the country. The chief of them are Sicily, and the Lipari Isles, off the S.W. coast; Sardinia, Elba, Ischia, and Capri, off the W. coast.

Obs. 1. Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean, lies at the S.W. point of Italy, from which it is separated by the Strait of Messina. Its area is 11,290 m., its population 2,584,099. The coasts are bold, rocky, and regular; their most striking features are the Capes, Faro, at the N.E., and S. Vito at the N.W. extremities of the island; and the Gulfs of Palermo, and Castellamare, on the N.W. coast. The surface, generally speaking, is mountainous, and the rivers small and not navigable. The productions include corn, wine, fruits, sulphur, and precious stones. The island forms a compartment of Italy, and its capital is Palermo, on the N. coast. Etna, the great Sicilian volcano, is near the E. coast.

Obs. 2. The Lipari Isles are a volcanic group of 13 small islands off the N.E. coast of Sicily. They contain 22,000 inhabitants, two thirds of whom belong to Lipari, the chief islaud. Stromboli (p. 19) and Volcano still exhibit active volcanoes. Obs. 3. Sardinia, after Sicily, the largest and most important island in the Mediterranean, lies 140 m. W. of Italy, and is separated from Corsica by the Strait of Bonifacio. Its area is 9,363 sq. m., and its population 636,660. Its surface is mountainous, and culminates in Mount Gennargentu (6,293 ft.) near the centre of the island. The productions include cereals, fruits, wines, and timber. The capital is Cagliari in the S.

Obs. 4. Elba, the largest of a group of small islands off the coast of Tuscany, is separated from the mainland by the Strait of Piombino. It is chiefly famous for its connection with Napoleon I., who lived there from the 3rd May, 1814, to the 26th February, 1815.

Obs. 5. Belonging geographically to Italy, but politically to England are the Maltese islands, Malta, Gozo, and Comino.

Malta, the chief island of the group, forms a dependency of Great Britain, and lies 60 ms. S. of Sicily. It is fertile and yields abundant crops of grain and subtropical fruits; its oranges, figs, and olives being especially celebrated. The chief town is Valetta, which is one of the most strongly fortified positions in the British possession.

Obs. 6. Other islands of Italy are Monte Christo, Ponza Isles, and Procida, off the W. coast; the Ægades, off the W., and Pantellaria off the S. W. coast of Sicily.

SURFACE.-Northern Italy is flat, well watered, and, generally speaking, exceedingly fertile; but Central and S. Ítaly are mountainous. All these regions, however, embrace numerous plains, which help greatly to diversify and enrich the general aspect of the country. The most striking surface features are the

1. Mountains, of which there are the four great systems, viz., the

a. Eastern Alps, on the N.W. frontier, between Italy and Austria, which embrace the S. spurs of that part of the Alpine system which extends from the valley of the Oglio, on the W., to that of the Isonza, on the E.

b. Central Alps, on the N.W. frontier, between Italy and Switzerland, which embrace the S. side of the vast Alpine rampart, between the Oglio on the E. and Mt. Blanc on the W., and have for their highest Italian point Mont Della Disgrazia (12,074 ft.).

c. Western Alps, on the W. frontier, between Italy and France, which stretch S. from Mt. Blanc to the Apennines, and embrace the E. slopes of the great barrier between those two nations. Their loftiest point on the Italian side is the Grand Paradis (13,300 ft.), the highest point in Italy.

d. Apennines, which belong exclusively to Italy, traversing the whole territory from the Maritime Alps to the Strait of Messina. This long mountain chain is usually divided into three sections, viz., the

a. Northern Apennines, which stretch from the Maritime Alps to the source of the Arno, and culminate in Monte Cimone (7,112 ft.).

b. Central Apennines, running from the Arno to the Gran Sasso, the culminating mass of the whole system, the highest peak being Monte Corno (9,543 ft.).

c. Southern Apennines, which extend from the Gran Sasso to the Strait of Messina, and have their highest point in Monte Amara (8,999 ft.). 2. Volcanoes.-Italy is subject to powerful volcanic agency, and Vesuvius, Stromboli, and Lipari (see p. 19) are still in a state of activity.

3. Plains. Although Italy is, generally speaking, mountainous, it includes several extensive and productive plains, also some flat and stérile regions, which are notoriously insalubrious. The chief plains are the

a. Plain of Lombardy, which extends from the Adriatic to the foot of the W. Alps, and from the Alps on the N. to the N. Apennines on the S. It is frequently called the "Garden of Europe," as being one of the best watered, most fertile, and beautiful districts on the continent. It is thickly populated. b. Plain of Tuscany, or "Maremma," which is a low, uncultivated, inundated, uninhabited, and pestilential district, lying between the W. coast and the Tuscan Plateau.

c. Campagna of Rome, which is an undulating region, having Rome for its centre. It was formerly celebrated for its salubrious climate, but it is now notoriously malarious, and all but deserted.

d. Pontine Marshes, which consist of a district 24 m. long and 12 m. broad, lying S. of the Campagna and terminating near Cape Circello. The marshes are destitute of anything like a resident population, and present the bleakest and most melancholy aspect.

e. Campania, which is an extensive, flat, rich, well cultivated, and thickly inhabited district around Naples. Its fertility is probably not surpassed by that of any other spot in Europe.

DRAINAGE.-Italy, one of the most copiously watered of European countries, sends her drainage E. to the Adriatic, and W. to the Tyrrhenian Sea. The principal draining agents are the

1. Rivers, which flow

a. Eastwards, to the Adriatic-viz., the Adige, Po, Pescara, Sangro, Trigno, and Ofanto.

b. Westward to the Tyrrhenian Sea-viz., the Arno, Ombrone, Tiber, Garigliano, and Volturno.

Obs. 1. The Adige, formed by the junction of the Etsch, and Eisack, has its sources among the ravines of the Rhætian Alps. It flows S. and S.E., over a course of 280 m., into the Gulf of Venice. It passes the towns of Glurns, Botzen, Trent, Roveredo, Verona, and Legnano, and is, in a military point of view, the most important river in Italy.

Obs. 2. The Po rises in Monte Viso, flows E. over a course of 390 m., 280 of which are navigable, and falls into the Adriatic, through several mouths. It passes the towns Turin, Pavia, Piacenza, and Cremona. Its chief tributaries are the Dora, Ticino, Adda, Oglio, and Mincio, on the left bank; the Tanaro, Trebbia, Taro, and Panaro, on the right bank.

Obs. 3. The Arno rises on the W. slope of the Apennines, flows S. and N.W. and W. over a course of 75 m., waters one of the most fertile valleys in Italy, passes the towns Arezzo, Florence, and Pisa, and falls into the sea 7 m. W. of Pisa.

Obs. 4. The Tiber rises among the heights of the Tuscan Apennines, flows generally S. and S. W. over a course of 230 m., traverses the provinces of Tuscany, Umbria, and Rome, passes by Rome and enters the Tyrrhenian Sea by two mouths. Its chief tributaries are the Chiana, on the right bank; the Nera and Teverone, on the left bank.

2. Lakes, which are numerous and, in several instances, of indescribable beauty. They are not the largest, but they are the most celebrated col