mule carriages, and along the rivers Magdalena and Cauca. The government is a Federal Republic, embracing the 9 States, each of which has its own legislature and governor. The chief Religion is Roman Catholicism; and Education receives much attention.

II.—VENEZUELA.

PHYSICAL FACTS.

Latitude, between 2° and 12° N. Longitude, between 61° and 72° 30′ W. Estimated Area, 439,120 sq. m.

Venezuela1 lies on the N. coast, immediately E. of Colombia, and mostly in the Valley of the Orinoco. It is 850 m. long from E. to W., and 700 m. broad. It has the Caribbean Sea, and the Atlantic on the N.; British Guiana on the E.; Brazil on the S.; and Colombia on the W. The coastline extends along the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, and though generally even, it contains some large inlets, especially the Sea of Maracay bo. The principal islands are Curaçao, Buen Ayre (see p. 214), Tortuga, Margarita, and Trinidad. But, though lying near the coast, and physically belonging to Venezuela, these islands, except Tortuga and Margarita, are included in the W. Indies, and belong politically to various European countries. The surface is mountainous in the N.W., N., S., and E.; while the W. belongs to the Llanos of the Orinoco. There are three Mountain Systems, viz., the Venezuelian Andes, or the N.E. continuation of the E. branch of the Colombian Cordillera, the Venezuelian Coast System, and the Sierra Parime. The S. consists of a vast and densely wooded plateau, which has not been much explored. The State is well watered by the Orinoco (see p. 214) and its tributaries, the Apure, Arauca, Ventuari, Caura, and Caroni. The Cassiquiare connects the Orinoco with the Negro, a tributary of the Amazon. The climate is tropical on the Llanos, and temperate, in varying degrees, on the highlands and mountains; earthquakes are frequent, and the rainy season lasts six months on the plains. The soil is exceedingly rich in the chief river valleys, and moderately fertile throughout most other parts. The productions include countless herds of cattle, which are raised on the Llanos; maize, timber, silver, tin, and copper. The principal vegetable productions are like those of Colombia. The population in 1873 was 1,784,197, a fourth of whom are Indians, the rest mixed breeds similar to those in Colombia. The common language and the language of literature, is Spanish.

POLITICAL FACTS.

The Republic of Venezuela consists of 21 States and 3 Territories. The capital is Caracas (pop. 48,897), which lies in the N.W., 12 m. from the sea, and does a large trade in the produce of the adjacent country.

The other most populous towns are Valencia (28,544), Barquisimeto (25,664), and Maracaybo (21,954).

The chief ports are La Guayra, Bolivar, Maracaybo, Cabello, Barcelona, and

Cumana.

The industries are the same as those in the neighbouring state of Colombia. The communications are deplorably bad, including only some 70 m. of railway. The government is Republican in form, the executive power being vested in a President and Vice President, who are assisted by a cabinet of 6 ministers. Education is not utterly neglected, but it is in a wretchedly backward condition. The State religion is Roman Catholicism.

1 Venezuela (= "Little Venice"), so called from the pile-dwellings (found by the Spaniards In the waters between the Gulf of Venezuela

and Lake Maracaybo), which brought before the minds of Europeans the City of Venice.

III THE GUIANAS.'

PHYSICAL FACTS.

The British, Dutch, and French Guianas lie along the coast of the Atlantic between the rivers Orinoco and Amazon. They are bounded by the Atlantic on the N.; by Brazil on the E. and S., and by Venezuela on the W. They have an aggregate area of 178,348 sq. m. The coasts are unbroken and contain no large inlet. The surface is mountainous in the S. and W., and flat in the N., and large areas in various parts are covered by dense forests. The chief rivers are the Cuyuni, Essequibo, Demerara, Berbice, Corentyn, Surinam, Maroni, and Oyapok. The climate is salubrious, though tropical; it is much tempered by the sea-breezes and the humidity of the atmosphere. The soil is rich; the productions, such as are common to the tropical regions of America. It may be noted, however, that the gigantic water-lily (Victoria Regia) was first found in the river Berbice in 1837. The population is estimated at about 314,522, and consists chiefly of Indians, Negroes, mixed breeds, and Europeans. The language is English, Dutch, and French.

POLITICAL FACTS.

The territory of Guiana being in the occupation of the English, Dutch, and French, receives from these nations the designations of its different parts. British Guiana alone is subdivided into settlements.

Obs. 1. Georgetown (pop. 28,000), the capital, on the coast at the mouth of the Demerara, is a Dutch-built town, and possesses numerous public buildings. It is a seaport, and is well defended by Fort Frederick William.

Obs. 2. Paramaribo (pop. 20,000), the capital of Dutch Guiana, is on the left bank of the Surinam, 10 m. above its mouth. The government establishments are situated at Fort Zeelandia, a little to the N. of the town, where also the governor resides.

Obs. 3. Cayenne (pop. 8,000), the capital of French Guiana, consists of an old and a new town. The old town is in a wretchedly dilapidated condition, but contains the government house; the new town is well built, and is traversed by good streets. The harbour of Cayenne, though shallow, is good.

Agriculture forms the chief occupation of the people, sugar, cocoa, and coffee being the staple articles of cultivation. Commerce is large, the chief exports being agricultural and forest produce; the imports, manufactured goods from Europe. Communications in the interior are sadly deficient, the chief mode of

1 Guiana, so called from the Indian tribe "Guayanoes," includes a vast expanse of territory, besides that occupied by England, France, and Holland. The largest portions of Guiana belong to Brazil and Venezuela.

2 British Guiana lies between Venezuela and the Corentyn River.

3 Dutch Guiana lies between the Corentyn River and the Maroweyne.

4 French Guiana lies between the Maroweyne and the Oyapok.

5 The streets of Georgetown and Paramaribo are intersected by canals, which here, as in Venice, take the place of roads.

6 Cayenne is notorious for its noxious climate, offenders. and as a French penal settlement for political

locomotion being by river boats. British Guiana is under a Governor and Court of Policy, consisting of 9 members. The Religion is chiefly Christian. Education is being looked after by the British Government; still, as yet, only 1 in 40 of the population is at school. Dutch Guiana is controlled by a Governor-General and a council appointed by the Government at the Hague. French Guiana is under the government of the Governor, who is assisted by a Lieut.-Governor, Privy Council, and a Colonial Council.

IV.-BRAZIL.

PHYSICAL FACTS.

Latitude, between 4° 25′ and 32° 40′ S. Longitude, between 34° 50′ and 72° 50′ W. Estimated Area, 3,218,166 sq. m.

The Empire of Brazil, the most important State in S. America, touches every country in this Continent except Chili. It has on its N. frontier Colombia, Venezuela, Guiana, and the Atlantic; on the E. the Atlantic; on the S., Uruguay, and Paraguay; and on the W. Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. Its length, from N. to S. is 2,600 m., and its breadth, 2,540 m. The coastline is about 3,700 m. long, of great regularity, and for the most part, low; it includes some of the finest harbours in the world. The chief inlets are the estuaries of the Amazon, Para, and Maranhão, on the N.; the Bays of All Saints, Formosa, Rio Janeiro, and Paranagua on the E. The principal capes are Do Norte, on the N.; St. Roque, St. Thomé, and Frio on the E. The chief islands are Caviana, Mexiana, and Marajo or Johannes island, all in the estuary of the Amazon. The surface of the E. and central parts of Brazil consists of an extensive and mountain-traversed highland. The N. and N.W. portions form a vast lowland plain covered by the densest forests. The mountains of Brazil generally are noticed on p. 216, Obs. 3. The drainage belongs to the mightiest system of running waters upon earth. Its chief agents are the Amazon (see p. 218, Obs. 3) and its tributaries, and the Paranahyba, São Francisco, and Parana. The climate is, in general, healthy, and even temperate, although nearly the whole of Brazil lies within the tropics. The mean annual temperature at Rio Janeiro is about 73° Fahr.; but in the lowlands of the Amazon it rises to above 100°, and the rainfall is excessive. The soil in the lowlands and along the coast regions is of the richest and most fertile description, and yet perhaps less than a hundredth part of the surface is under cultivation. The productions comprise sugar, coffee, cocoa, sago, chinchona, cotton, timber, dye woods, drugs, gums, and indiarubber; hides, horns, tallow; diamonds1, topazes, and other gems; gold, silver, quicksilver, platinum, copper, and iron. The population in 1872, was 11,108,291, and consists of Whites, or Brazilians, who are of European origin; Negroes, who are slaves: Native Indians, of no fixed habitations; and Mixed Races. The language of the dominant races is Portuguese.

POLITICAL FACTS.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS AND CHIEF TOWNS.-Brazil is divided into 20 Provinces, and has Rio Janeiro (pop. 274,972) for its capital.

Obs. Rio Janeiro, or Rio, on the magnificent bay of that name is the principal seaport of Brazil, and the finest capital in the New World.

1 The Diamonds are found chiefly in the province of Minas Geraes.

The other chief cities are Bahia or San Salvador (128,929), Pernambuco (116,671), both important ports, Belim (35,000), and Maranhão (31,604).

The chief industries are agriculture-the chief objects of culture being coffee, maté, cotton, sugar, tobacco, and india-rubber. -Cattle-rearing, mining, chiefly of diamonds, and gold-and commerce, the chief exports being coffee, cotton, sugar, maté, and india-rubber: imports, manufactured goods.

The communications embrace a river navigation of thousands of miles long, by which the produce of the remotest territories, can be placed on her commercial marts: 1721 m. of railway, and 4250 m. of telegraphic lines. The government is a Monarchy, and the only Monarchy in the New World. The religion is Roman Catholicism; and education is making progress under the care of the States.

V.-ECUADOR.

PHYSICAL FACTS.

Latitude, between 1° 40' N., and 5° 50' S. Longitude, between 69° and 81° 20′ W. Estimated Area, 248,312 sq. m.

Ecuador ("Equator") lies on the W. side of S. America, and almost entirely S. of the Equator. Its greatest length, from E. to W., 850 m., and greatest breadth 460 m. It has Colombia and Brazil on the N.; Brazil on the E.; Peru on the S.; and the Pacific on the W. The coast is bold and rugged from N. to S., exhibiting great promontories-as Capes San Francisco, and San Lorenzo, which are formed by terminations of spurs of the Andes-and including the inlets, Panguapi Bay, Manta Bay, and the Gulf of Guayaquil. The chief islands are Puna, and Santa Clara, in the Gulf of Guayaquil; and the Galapagos. The surface is mountainous in the W., and consists of a portion of the Andean highlands. East of the Andes, Ecuador forms part of the Great Amazonian Plain. The mountains, known as the Andes of Ecuador, consist of two colossal parallel ranges which traverse the W. side of the State from N. to S., and lie about 40 m. apart. They are distinguished as the 1. Eastern Cordillera, which rises to great elevations in its volcanic peaks, Cayambe (19,535 ft.), Antisana (19,137 ft.), Cotopaxi (18,875 ft.), and Tunguragua (15,960 ft.). 2. Western Cordillera, which includes the mighty Chimborazo (21,424 ft.), Hinitzal (17,380 ft.), and Pichincha (15,936 ft.). The region between these ranges is divided by transverse mountain clumps into three great tablelands, viz., The Tableland of Quito in the N., which is 200 m. long, 30 m. broad, and 10,000 ft. high, and forms the very heart of the State: The Tableland of Alausi, called also "La Tapia" and Ambato," in the middle, which is 8,500 ft. above the sea and The Tableland or Basin of Cuenca, in the S., which has a mean elevation of 8,000 ft. The chief rivers are the Pastaca, Napo, Putumayo, and Japura, which are tributaries of the Amazon: and the Guayaquil, which flows into the Pacific, through the Gulf of Guayaquil. Every variety of climate is experienced in Ecuador; the temperature is tropical in the valleys and plains, temperate on the tablelands, and Arctic on the high mountains. At Quito, with a mean temperature of 61° Fahr., there is perpetual spring. The soil, in the valleys and along the plain, is of inexhaustible fertility. The productions include maize, wheat, rice, and other grain; coffee, cocoa, sugar; cotton, tobacco, india-rubber; chinchona, gums, resins, and other drugs; gold, quicksilver, lead, sulphur, etc.; and vast herds of cattle and sheep are pastured on the lowland plains.

The population is estimated at 946,033, about two thirds of whom are Whites of Spanish extraction; there are also some 200,000 Indians. The language of the Republic is Spanish.

POLITICAL FACTS.

Ecuador is divided into 11 Provinces, and has for its Capital, Quito.

Obs. Quito, (pop. 80,000), the capital of the Republic, lies near the Equator, on the high Tableland of Quito, between the E. and W. ranges of the Andes, at an elevation of nearly 10,000 ft. above the level of the sea, and enjoys a climate of perpetual spring in consequence of that elevation. It is the focus of the commerce of the surrounding region. Eleven snow-capped peaks are visible from the city, among which is Pichincha, a volcano that has twice nearly destroyed the city by its eruptions, viz., in 1757 and 1859 A.D.

Other important places are Guayaquil, the chief seaport of the Republic Cuenca, the seat of a famous University, and Loja, formerly renowned for its chinchona forests.

Of the Industries, agriculture forms the principal occupation of the people; Mining is carried on only to a limited extent. Fishing is extensively pursued. Manufactures are almost confined to cotton and woollen fabrics of coarse texture, and straw hats. The commerce is considerable, and includes the export of grain, cocoa, gums, straw hats, Peruvian bark, cotton, precious metals, etc. The constitution of the country is a Republic. Its government is invested in a President, Vice-President, two Ministers, a Senate, and House of Representatives. Some attention is paid to education, primary schools being established in all the towns. The religion is Roman Catholicism.

VI. PERU.

PHYSICAL FACTS.

Latitude, between 3° 30′ and 21° 30' S. Longitude, between 68° and 81° W.
Estimated area 403,228 sq. m.

Peru occupies the central part of the Pacific coast. From N. W. to S.E. it is 1,243 m. long; its breadth varies from 150 to 650 m. It has Ecuador on the N., Brazil and Bolivia on the E; Bolivia on the S.: and the Pacific on the W. The coastline, which extends about 1,600 m. from N. W. to S.E., is rocky and unbroken by any great inlet of the sea: it includes, however, the small Bays of Sechura, Samanco, Chorillos, and Pisco. The chief capes and headlands are Cape Blanco, and Points Pariña, Ahuja, and Huacas. The principal islands are the Lobos, Macabi, Guañape, and the Chincha groups, which all lie near the coast, and are very important on account of their rich guano deposits. The surface is exceedingly mountainous in the W.; the centre, from N. to S., consists of a great highland; between the mountainous region and the sea runs the "Costa" a hot, rainless lowland desert, varying from 20 to 50 m. in breadth; while the N.E. part of the country consists of a great elevated plain. The Peruvian mountains belong to the Andean system, and include numerous volcanic peaks of great height, especially Chuquibamba (21,000 ft.), and Misti (20,300 ft.). The huge mountain knots of Pasco and Cuzco unite the E. and W. Cordilleras, and form the tablelands of Pasco and Cuzco. The chief rivers are affluents of the Amazon. They are the Upper Marañon, Huallaga, and Ucayali, which is formed by the Apurimac, Urumba, and Camisca. Peru contains several lakes, but there are none of importance which belong exclusively to her. Titicaca (see p. 218) is only partly a Peruvian lake. The climate is celebrated as being amongst the most salubrious and genial climates in the world. The natural heat of the valleys is tempered by daily sea-breezes; and the absence of rain is to some extent compensated for by the "Garua, a species of fog which waters the ground. The productions include Peruvian sheep-as the llama, alpaca, vicuna, and guanaco; sugar,