MONGOLIA.

Mongolia is an extensive tract of country in the E. part of Central Asia. Its area is said to be 1,303,630 sq. m. It lies between the parallels 38° and 53° N. lat., and between the meridians 84° and 124° E. long., having Siberia on the N.; Mandchuria and Leao-tong on the E.; China Proper on the S.; and Turkestan on the W. The surface is mountainous in the N. and N.W.; the great desert of Shamo or Gobi occupies the centre. The chief Mountain Ranges of the N. region are offshoots of the Altai system; the S. region is occupied by the Ala Shan Inshan ranges; while the E. is traversed from N. towards S.W. by the Khingan range. The great desert of Shamo is described p. 123. The rivers belong almost entirely to the two mountainous districts, and comprise, in the N., the Upper Yenisei, Selenga, and Kerulen; in the S. the middle course of the Hoang Ho. The climate is dry, harsh, and inhospitable; and the chief productions are wheat, barley, and coarse grass. The population is about 2,000,000, and consists of various Mongolian tribes, some of which are nomadic and others settled. The country, or rather the population, is divided into 3 Nations, viz., the Khalkas, in the N.; the Sunnit, in the centre; and the Tshakhar, in the S. These nations are divided and subdivided for purposes of civil and military administration. The chief town is Urga, the capital and residence of the Lamas or Buddhist priests, near the N. frontier. The communications are mere caravan tracks. A large transit trade is done between China and Russia through the Mongol traffickers, who exchange their camels, horses, oxen, and sheep with the Chinese for tea, spirits, tobacco, cotton goods, &c.

ТІВЕТ.

Tibet is a vast highland region of Central Asia, extending over an estimated area of 651,528 sq. m. It lies between the parallels 27° 40′ and 36° 10' N. lat. and between the meridians 78° and 104° E. long., having Turkestan and Chinese Mongolia, on the N.; China Proper on the E.; China Proper and Hindustan on the S.; and Kashmir on the W. The surface is traversed in all directions by stupendous and rugged mountains. In the S. are the Himalayas (p. 122); in the N. the Thian Shan, or Celestial Mountain (p. 122); on the E. frontier are the Yun-ling Mountains; near the W. frontier the Tise-Gangri Mountains. The Dzang Mountains traverse the interior of Tibet from E. to W., and cover vast regions in both those quarters by their mighty ramifications. Many of the largest rivers of Asia take their rise in Tibet, as the Brahmaputra (p. 149, obs. 1) and Yang-tsze-Kiang (p. 163, obs. 3), which flow E.; the Indus (p. 149, obs. 3), and the Sutlej, which flow W. Much of the drainage of the interior is received into lakes, the chief of which are Tengri-Nor in the centre of the plateau, and Buka-Nor, a few miles N.E. from Tengri-Nor. The climate is dry and almost everywhere excessively severe because of the great elevation of the plateau; the productions include the yak, and argali: gold, precious stones, and borax. The population is about 6,000,000, and consists, for the most part, of Mongolians. The administrative divisions are very imperfectly understood by Europeans; the chief of them are E. Tibet, with capital Lassa; and W. Tibet, with chief town Teshu-Lombu. The principal industries are cattle-rearing, and agriculture; manufactures are confined to things for home use, but traffic is extensive between Tibet and China. Communications are very indifferent, and the transit of all merchandise is carried on by horses, mules, and other beasts of burden. The government is chiefly sacerdotal, the highest native authorities being the chief Lama, who lives at Lassa; and the second Lama, who resides at TeshuLombu. The active secular government devolves upon a Rajah and four ministers. The religion is Buddhism, which has its head-quarters in Tibet.

TURKESTAN.

Obs. The part of Central Asia here called Turkestan, extends from China Proper on the E., to Russia on the W.; from Russia on the N., to Tibet, Hindustan, Afghanistan and Persia on the S.; and consists of two well marked divisions, which are called respectively E. and W. Turkestan.

EASTERN TURKESTAN.

Eastern Turkestan forms the W. province of the Chinese Empire. Broadly speaking, it lies between the parallels 35° and 44° N. lat., and between the meridians 73° 30 and 94° E. long., having China Proper on the N.E. and E.; Tibet on the S.; Hindustan on the S.W.; W. Turkestan and the Khanate of Kokand on the W. The surface is mountainous in the S. W., W., and N.; but sandy and sterile deserts compose much of the interior. The mountains send down fertilising rivers charged with rich alluvial soil, but the deserts absorb them; the great artery of the Djetyshar drainage system is the Tarim or Ergu, which is formed by the union of the Kizil Kungel, Kizil Su or Kashgar river, Zarafshan or Yarkand River, and the Khotan River: it then flows E. through the great desert of Gobi, and falls into Lob Nor. It is 1500 m. long, and fetches its waters from the Thian Shan, the Kizil Yart, Karakoram, and Kuen Lun Mountains. The Yuldus River, which drains part of the N. mountainous region, also flows E., and falls into the Bostu Lake, which lies about 100 m. N. of Lob Nor. The chief productions are silk, cotton, jade, wool, and horses. The population is supposed to be under a million, and consists of Aryans, Tungans, Chinese, and Black Kirghizes. The country contains 15 Districts. Kashgar, Yarkand, and Aksu are important commercial towns. The chief industries are agriculture, commerce and manufactures of cotton, woollen, and silk goods, paper, and leather. The communications are good trade routes which traverse the country in all directions between Russia and China. Of education there is not much: the religion is Mohammedanism.

WESTERN TURKESTAN.

W. Turkestan is a vast and important region of Central Asia, covering an area of about 500,000 sq. m., having Russia on the N. and W.; Eastern Turkestan on the E.; and Afghanistan on the S. The surface is mountainous in the E.; the W. part consists of a continuation of the great Siberian plain and includes the desert of Khiva or Kara Kum; while the regions between these extremes is a terraced tableland traversed by a series of parallel valleys, which run from N. to S. The slope of this great region inclines N.W. towards the Sea of Aral, into which flows the greater part of the drainage of W. Turkestan. The chief rivers are the Narin or Upper Sir Daria; and the Amu Daria or Oxus (p. 128, obs. 4). The climate is very diversified, as might be expected in a country which falls from an elevation of 19,000 ft. (Mt. Shchurof in the N.E.) above the sea, to a depression of 83 ft. (about the Caspian) below the sea. The summers are excessively hot, and dry; the winters, prolonged and bitterly cold. The chief productions are the yak, pamir sheep, and wild horse; the vine in Bokhara, silk, and cotton, on the banks of the Amu Daria; wheat, rice, millet, maize, barley, tobacco, and hemp on the various river courses; lapis lazuli, rubies, and salt occur in various parts. The population is about 6,000,000, and consists of settled and nomadic Turks who belong to the Mongolian race, and speak languages belonging to the Turanian family. The political organisation of this region is extremely loose and unsettled; there are the nominally inde

pendent sovereignties of Bokhara and Khiva, and several semi-independent states, but of their constitution and internal administration we have no definite knowledge. The chief towns are Bokhara, and Khiva, two of the most important places in Asia. The country is traversed by trade routes from Russia, Persia, Afghanistan, India, and China. The chief industries are commerce, cattle rearing, agriculture, and manufactures-chiefly silk and cotton fabrics, carpets, arms, and cutlery. The commerce consists mainly in the barter of tea, musk, porcelain, wool, rhubarb, shawls, brocades, opium, and sugar, for European manufactured goods. There is a large traffic also in slaves. The governments are autocratic, but conducted under the injunctions of the Koran; the religion of the people is Mohammedanism; and education is provided for by schools in all the chief towns.

JAPAN.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Latitude. Between 20° 30′ and 46° N.

Longitude. Between 129° and 151° E.
Area. 146,586 sq. m.

Obs. The empire is said to comprise 3,850 islands and islets; but the most important of them are, going from N. to S., the Kurile Chain, Yezo, Nipon, Shikoku, Kiushiu, and Loo-choo islands.

POSITION, AND BOUNDARIES.-Japan lies in the Pacific Ocean off the E. coast of Asia. It is bounded on the

N. by the Sea of Okhotsk. E.; and S.E.; by the Pacific. S.W. by the Chinese Sea. W. by the Corea Strait, and the Sea of Japan.

COASTS.-These are, generally speaking, irregular, and, in places, deeply indented by the sea. Their chief features are

1. Capes, Sova, and Sirtoko, on the N., Noshamu, and Erimo, on the E. of Yezo; Torii, and Tatsutobi, on the N., and Sudzu, on the W. of Nipon; Muroto, on the S. of Shikoku; and Satano, on the S. of Kiushiu.

2. Inlets, in Yezo, the Bays of Volcano, on the S.W.; and Ishikari, on the W. In Nipon, the Bays of Aomori, on the N.; Sendai, on the E.; Yedo, Kawatsu, Suruga, and Mia, on the S.; Myku, Wakasa, and Toyama, on the W.

3. Straits, Tsugaru, between Yezo and Nipon; Kii, between Nipon and Shikoku; Shimonoseki, between Nipon and Kiushiu; and Van Diemen, S. of Kiushiu.

SURFACE. The Japanese islands are covered with mountains, many of which are volcanic, and many crowned with perpetual snow. The loftiest summit, Fusi-Yama (12,400 ft.), lies 80 m. S. W. of Yedo, and near the S. coast of Nipon; this mountain and HakuYama (9,185 ft.) in nearly the same latitude, but near the W. coast, are active volcanoes.

DRAINAGE.-Japan is well watered, but the rivers have short courses, and swift currents, and are navigable only for a short distance from their mouths. The chief draining agents are the

1. Rivers, of which the chief are

a. In Yezo, the Ishikari, which flows S.W. into Ishikari Bay.

b. In Nipon, the Kitakami, which runs S. into Sendai Bay; the Tone, and Sumida, which fall into Yedo Bay; the Kiso, which flows to Mia Bay; and the Yodo, which falls into the Idzumi Sea.

c. In Kiushiu, the Kawachi, which flows W. into the Chinese Sea.

2. Lakes, the chief of which is Biwa (so called from its likeness in figure to the musical instrument of that name), which lies in the S.W. of Nipon, and is regarded by the natives with reverential awe.

CLIMATE, SOIL, AND PRODUCTIONS.-The climate, generally speaking, is salubrious. In the N. Isles, however, the temperature is very rigorous. The summer heat is tempered by sea breezes. The rainy season is accompanied by almost continual thunder and earthquakes, and fearful storms are frequent, and sometimes disastrous. The Productions include rice, tea, ginger, camphor, and tobacco; silk, cotton, hemp; valuable woods, as ironwood, cypress, and oak; and copper, iron, coal, salt, sulphur, and amber.

PEOPLE, AND LANGUAGE. -In 1874 the Population was 33,623,379. They are of Mongolian origin, and are characterised by large heads, short necks, small hands and feet, black hair, yellow skin, and obliquely-set eyes. Their Language belongs to the Turanian family, but it differs from the Chinese language.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS AND TOWNS.-The Empire, for administrative purposes, is divided into 36 Ken (Government Districts), and 3 Fu (Residential Districts). The Fu are Tokio, Osaka, and Kioto. Obs. The island Yezo is under the administration of the Colonization Department. NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The most important towns are Tokio (595,905), Kumamotu (300,000), Kioto (238,663), Osaka (281,119), Kagosima (200,000), Yokohama (61,553), Kanagawa (60,000), and Nagasaki (47,412).

Obs. 1. Tokio or Yedo, the capital of the empire, and chief residence of the Tycoon or secular Emperor, lies on the N.W. shore of the bay of Yedo on the E. side of Nipon. The city is of vast extent, having, with its suburbs, a population of 1,036,771. The houses are built chiefly of wood, and many of the principal streets are traversed by canals which are bordered by rows of trees. The royal palace is an immense and magnificent building. The city possesses a rich library, and many public edifices of great beauty.

Obs. 2. Kioto or Miako, the ecclesiastical capital of the Empire, "the Paradise of Japan," and the principal residence of the Mikado, or Spiritual Sovereign, lies about midway between the head of Osaka Bay, and Lake Biwa, near the S. end of Nipon. It is the centre of literature, of sciences, and of arts, and possesses many temples and edifices which are remarkable for their size and beauty. The most celebrated temple is the "Fokosi," which contains a colossal statue of Buddha; the chief public edifice is the palace of the Mikado. The town also possesses numerous manufacturing and educational establishments.

The chief ports and industrial centres are Yokohama, Osaka, Hiogo, Nagasaki, and Hakodadi.

INDUSTRIES. The people devote themselves almost exclusively to Agriculture, but as only a tenth part of the soil is under cultivation,

the appearance of the country is poor. Manufactures include arms, porcelain, lacquered and japanned wares, toys, &c., but they form but an insignificant part of the national industries. Commerce is active and embraces the export of silk, tea, rice, and camphor; and the import of cotton and woollen stuffs, metals, &c.

COMMUNICATIONS are very defective. Most of the Roads, except a few on the coast, are useless for traffic. There are 66 m. of Railway open for traffic, and new lines are being constructed; also 1,834 m. of Telegraph Lines.

GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The Supreme Power belongs to the "Mikado" (Emperor), to whom all the Princes of the Empire are subject. Education is very general, and is making rapid progress under the Board of Public Instruction, which was appointed in 1871. Numbers of students are also sent at the public expense, to be educated in America and in Europe. The prevailing Religion is Buddhism, but the old religion of the country is termed Sin-sin or Sinto, and is connected with the sun; Confucianism has also gained great numbers of followers.