EASTERN RUSSIA; OR, SIBERIA1 AND CENTRAL ASIA. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Latitude. Between 37° 20' and 78° N.E. Longitude. Between 50° E. and 170° W. Area. Estimated at 6,128,019 sq. m., or considerably more than that of Europe. POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-Eastern Russia occupies all the N.E. portion of the Old World. It is bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean; E. by Behring Strait, Behring Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, and Gulf of Tartary; S. by China, Ferghana, Bokhara, Kiva, and Persia; W. by the Caspian Sea, and Europe. Obs. 1. Behring Strait, so called from a Dane, Vitus Behring, who discovered it in 1728, connects the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, and separates Asia from America in those parts where they approach one another most nearly. It is 36 m. wide in its narrowest part, and is generally shallow. Usually it is frozen over from November to April. Obs. 2. Behring Sea lies between the peninsulas of Kamtschatka (on the W.), and Alaska (on the E.), the Aleutian Isles (on the S.), and Behring Strait, and is the northernmost part of the N. Pacific Ocean. It is upwards of 1,600 m. long. COASTS. The rigour of the climate keeps the Siberian coasts icebound and inaccessible during the greater part of the year. Their chief 1. Capes are Taimyr, Tcheliuskin or North East, Sviatoi, Skelagskoi, on the N.; East Cape, and Lopatka, on the E. 2. Inlets are the Gulfs of Obi, Yenesei, and Taimyr, and the Bays of Borchaja, Jana, and Tschaun, on the N.; the Gulf of Anadir; the Bay of Olyutorski; the Bays of Ghijinsk, Penjinsk, and Amur, in the Sea of Okhotsk; and the Tartary Gulf in the Sea of Japan, on the E. Obs. 1. The Gulf of Obi, is the estuary of the river Obi. It is 400 m. long, and from 70 to 80 m. wide. It is generally frozen over from October to June. Obs. 2. The Gulf of Yenisei is the estuary of the river Yenisei. It is 200 m. long, and about 20 m. wide. It is frozen over from October to May. 3. Straits, viz., Behring Strait (see above, Obs. 1), and the Kurile Strait, which connects Behring Sea with the Sea of Okhotsk, and runs between Cape Lopatka and the Kurile chain of Islands. ISLANDS.-The most important Asiatic Islands belonging to Russia are the Lena Archipelago, and the Liakov or New Siberia Islands, off the N. coast; St. Lawrence, the Aleutian Chain, Behring Island, the Kurile Chain, and Saghalin, off the E. coast. Obs. 1. The Liakov Islands are so called from M. Liakov, their discoverer. They lie in the Arctic Ocean, off the N. coast of Siberia, and compose a group of four large islands, and several small ones. They are valuable solely for the fossil ivory which is found there in great profusion. Obs. 2. The Kurile Islands are about 25 in number, and contain several active volcanoes. They compose a chain which stretches from the peninsula of Kamtschatka to Yezo. The population is scanty, and lives chiefly by hunting and fishing. These islands now belong to Japan. See Obs. 3, p. 127. Siberia, is said to derive its name from Sibir, | northward in 1728. It is not known whether he the capital of an old Mongol settlement on the banks of the Irtish. Vitus Behring was in the service of Russia, a nd made a coasting voyage from Kamtschatka ever passed East Cape. The information, however, which we possess of the strait is chiefly derived from our own countrymen, Captains Cook and Beecher. Obs. 3. Saghalin, at its nearest point, is 4 m. distant from the mainland." Its area is 1,065 sq. m. It is of volcanic origin, mountainous, and yields timber and coal. It is peopled by about 13,000 inhabitants, about half of whom are natives, and half Russian and Japanese settlers. The principal exports are fish, furs, timber, and coal. Saghalin now belongs to Russia, Japan having ceded, A.D. 1875, her portion of it in exchange for the Russian part of the Kurile Islands. SURFACE. This portion of the Russian Empire consists, for the most part, of a vast plain which extends from the Arctic Ocean towards the S. and W., imperceptibly rising as it approaches the Altai Mountains to an elevation of some 1,200 feet. The chief 1. Mountains, are the a. Thian Shan or Celestial Mts. (see p. 122.) b. Kharli Tau Mts., which trend W. from the N.W. corner of the Pamir Plateau, and consist of a broad belt of parallel ranges, which separate the waters of the Kizil Su from those of the Jaxartes. They culminate in Mt. Schurof (19,000 ft.) and embrace numerous peaks 12,000 ft. high. c. Altai Mts.-A vast and complicated system which occupies the whole country between the Upper Irtish and the Selenga-which flows into Lake Baikal-consists of numerous ranges bearing different names, and culminates in Mt. Bielucha1 (about 11,000 ft.) near the W. extremity of the mass. d. Yablonoi Mts. appear to be nothing more than an undulating plateau, which extends N.E. from the Selenga, between the valleys of the Lena and the Amur. e. Stanovoi Mts. extend N.E. from the Yablonoi Plateau to Behring Strait. The mountains which traverse Kamtschatka are a spur of the Stanovoi. They probably nowhere exceed 2,000 or 3,000 ft. in height. Obs. The mountains of Siberia are but very imperfectly known. 2. Plateau is Ust-Urt, a rocky and all but desert waste between the Caspian and Aral Seas. It is 240 m. long, 160 m. broad, and lies at a mean elevation of about 6,000 ft. above the Caspian. 3. Plains are the a. Siberian Plain, a low-lying diluvial tract which occupies nearly the whole country. A broad belt stretching S. from the Arctic Ocean, consists of desolate irreclaimable swamps called "Tundras," which are almost always frozen. S. of this portion stretch immense pastures and extensive tracts of dense forests. b. Tau-Kum,3 which lie between the Ili, and Chu rivers. c. Ak-Kum, S.W. of the Chu and between it and the Kara Tau Mts. d. Kara-Kum, which extend W. from the Sari Su to to the Aral Sea. e. Desert of Kizil - Kum, which is enclosed by the Aral Sea and the rivers Amu Daria, and Sir Daria. f. The Steppes, a series of rough plains which extend N.E. from the region between the Aral and Caspian Seas. Consisting of immense tracts of whitish sand or reddish clay, the general aspect of the steppes is monotonous and forbidding in the extreme. They are varied, here and there, with scanty shrubs, long rank grass, salt marshes, and reed thickets, but they are absolutely destitute of trees. DRAINAGE.--The drainage of Siberia, like that of the whole continent, is Oceanic and Continental. The rivers of Siberia are amongst the largest and slowest in the world. The principal draining agents are the 1 Mt. Bielucha "White Mountain." Tau "a mountain." 3 Kum="sands." 4 Ak="white." 5 Kara " black." 6 Kizil" red." 1. Rivers, which belong to the a. Oceanic System, and include those flowing down the a. N. slope, into the Arctic Ocean, viz., the Obi, Yenisei, Olensk, Lena, Jana, Indigirka, and Kolyma. b. E. slope, into the Pacific Ocean, viz., the Anadir, and Amur. b. Continental System, and include those flowing into the a. Aral Sea, viz., the Amu Daria (Oxus), and Sir Daria (Jaxartes). c. Balkash Lake, viz., the Ili, Karatal, Ak-su, and Lepsa. Obs. 1. The Obi has its remotest sources in the Ektag Altai Mts., flows N.W. and N., and after a course of more than 2,000 m., reaches the Arctic Ocean through the Gulf of Obi. Its chief tributary is the Irtish, which, enlarged by the affluents Ishim and Tobol, it receives on its left bank. Obs. 2. The Yenisei, above 3,000 m. long, rises among the S. spurs of the Altai Mts., flows N. by W. and enters the Arctic Ocean through the Gulf of Yenisei. Its chief tributaries are the Upper, Middle, and Lower Tunguskas. Obs. 3. The Amur or Amoor, the most important river in N. Asia, is the only natural highway which connects the central Steppes of Asia with the rest of the world. It is formed by the union of the Shilka and the Argun-called in its upper course the Kerulen-which rise in the Kentei Mts., S. of Lake Baikal. It flows over an E. and N.E. course of 2,280 m., and after receiving on its right bank the tributaries Sungari and Usuri, falls into the Gulf of Amur, at the N. end of the Gulf of Tartary. Obs. 4. The Amu Daria (Oxus), from its remotest sources on the Pamir Plateau flows W. and N. W. over a course of some 1,400 m. to the Aral Sea, which it enters by many mouths. It is said to be navigable from the Aral Sea to the frontiers of Afghanistan. 2. Lakes, which are large and numerous. The most important of them are the a. Caspian, which lies in the S.W. between E. and W. Russia. It is the largest inland sea in the world, having an area of 178,866 sq. m., and lies in a depression which is 84 ft. below the level of the Black Sea. It receives 84 streams besides the Volga, and has no outlet; its level, therefore, is maintained solely by evaporation. Its waters are salt, but less so than those of the ocean, from the prodigious quantity of fresh water which it receives. b. Aral Sea, which lies E. of the Caspian, has an area of about 27,000 sq. m.; its elevation is 33 ft. above the level of the sea, and 117 ft. above the Caspian. Its waters are brackish and very shallow along the E. and S. shores. The Russians have placed upon it a small fleet of steamers. It receives the Sir Daria, the Amu Daria, and many other streams; but it has no visible outlet. c. Balkash, which lies between the parallels 45° and 47° N. lat., extends over an area of 11,500 sq. m. Its waters are salt and bitter, although it receives the Ili, Karatal, Ak-Su, Lepsa, and many other large rivers. d. Issik-Kul (Warm Lake), which lies in a broad basin at the S. foot of the Trans Ili Ala Tau Mts., at an elevation of 4,540 ft. It is 2,468 sq. m. in extent, and although it receives 40 streams its waters are salt. e. Baikal, which lies among the N. ridges of the Altai system. It is the largest collection of fresh water in Asia, its area being about 13,287 sq. m. It receives many rivers, the chief of which are the Selenga and the upper Angara. Its surplus waters are carried into the river Yenisei by the lower Angara. Obs. Of smaller lakes there are between the Caspian and Lake Baikal great numbers. CLIMATE.-Although nearly the whole of E. Russia lies within the N. Temperate Zone, the prevailing climate is exceedingly ungenial. The open plains between the Arctic Ocean and the Altai The Irtish is the largest limb of this great | dinary principles of river nomenclature, to have river, and ought therefore, according to the or- given its name to the main stream. Mountains are swept with fury by the icy winds from the Polar regions, while they are shut out completely from the warm S. winds by the huge barrier of mountains and plateaux of Central Asia. The result is that for nine months of the year the cold is so intense that it is no uncommon thing for the mercury to freeze and remain solid for months together. The short summers, however, are remarkable for their great heat, and for the rapidity with which vegetation springs up, grows, and matures. PRODUCTIONS.-The Animal and Mineral resources of E. Russia are almost illimitable. The Vegetable Products are less important. Domestic Animals comprise the reindeer1 and camel'; Wild Animals include the white and brown bear, wolf, beaver, ermine, marten, minx, sable, and seaotter.3 Vegetables and Fruits are not grown to perfection in E. Russia, but there is in some of the mountainous districts much timber. The chief Minerals are precious stones, gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, lead, zinc, salt, mica, &c., &c. PEOPLE AND LANGUAGES.-The population is about 8,000,000, of whom nearly half are exiles and convicts from W. Russia. The remainder is made up of Kirghiz hordes, who wander about in the S. W.; Ostiaks, who occupy the lower valleys of the Obi and Yenisei; Samoiedes, on the Arctic shores; and Kamtschatdalis, in Kamtschatka. The Languages belong to the Russian branch of the Slavonian, or to the Turanian family, and include Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic, and Samoiedic. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-Eastern or Asiatic Russia is divided into two great sections, viz.,-I. SIBERIA. II. CENTRAL ASIA, each of which is divided into 8 Governments, which with their chief towns are shown in the following table. Obs. The Capitals of the Governments are in Italics. NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The three most populous towns are Tashkend (78,165); Khojend (45,000); and Samarkand (25,000). The great trading centres are Tashkend, Samarkand, Khojend, Kiakhta, Yakutsk, and Tomsk. The chief mining centres are Ekaterinburg (Ural), Barnaul (Altai), and Nertchinsk (Transbaikal). The principal manufacturing centres are Tiumen (soap, woollen fabrics, leather, coarse carpets, mats, and carriages), and Irkutsk, capital of Siberia (glass, leather, soap, &c.) Other noteworthy towns are Tobolsk, the capital of Central Asia or W. Siberia, Omsk, the virtual capital of W. Siberia, and Petropaulovski, a strong fortress on the coast of Kamtschatka. INDUSTRIES.-These embrace Cattle-rearing, Commerce, Mining, Manufactures, and Fishing. Obs. The chief exports are furs, hides, wool, leather, firearms, toys, and spirits; imports, tea, silk, porcelain, paper, &c. COMMUNICATIONS.-Rivers are much used for the transport of goods. The Roads are, to a large extent, mere caravan tracts. The Sleigh, during the winter months, affords the chief means of transit. Telegraphic communication exists between Europe, and all the principal Siberian towns. GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-E. Russia is under Military Governors appointed by the Czar. The chief Religions are Mohammedanism in the W., and Buddhism in the E. There are also a few Christians, who belong to the Greek Church. Education is here at the lowest ebb. ASIATIC TURKEY. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Latitude. Between 12° 40′ and 42° N. Longitude. Between 26° and 48′ E. Area. 729,473 sq. m. (including Hedjaz and Yemen in Arabia, which the Turks claim as conquests.) POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-Asiatic Turkey lies in the extreme W. of Asia. It is bounded on the N. by the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, and the Black Sea. E. by Russia, Persia, and Arabia. S. by the Persian Gulf, and Arabia. W. by the Red Sea, Africa, and the Mediterranean. COASTS.-These belong to five different seas, and are almost everywhere bold and rocky. On the N. and S. W. there are few inlets or good harbours; but in the S., W., and N. W., the indentations are deep and the harbours excellent. The chief 1. Capes, are Halys or Babira, Injeh, and Baba, on the N.; Baba, and Krio, on the W.; Kelidonia, Anamur, and Karatash, on the S. 2. Inlets, are, the Gulfs of Edremid, Sandarlik, Smyrna, Scala Nova, Mendelia, Adalia, and Iskenderun, on the shores of Asia Minor; the Bay of Acre, on the Syrian coast; and the Gulfs of Suez, and Akaba, at the head of the Red Sea. 3. Straits and Channels, viz., the Bosporus, which connects the Black Sea |