consisting of the heads of the seven chief departments of state. The Religion is Christianity, and nearly all the people are attached to the Greek Church. Education is fostered by the State and is carried on in four grades of schools, viz., the "Commercial" and the "Ancient Greek" schools, the " Gymnasia," and the "University of Athens.” RUSSIA. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Latitude. Between 38° 55′ and 70° N. Longitude. Between 17° 50′ and 66° 20′ E. Area. 2,271,024 sq. m. This area includes Transcaucasia and the Asiatic parts of Orenburg and Perin. POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-Russia lies in the E. of Europe. It is bounded on the N. by Norway and the Arctic Ocean. E. by East Russia. S. by the Caspian, W. by Prussia, the COASTS.-The coasts of Russia belong to four different seas, viz., the Arctic, Caspian, Black, and Baltic Seas, and have an estimated length of 5,514 m. Obs. Owing to the ice by which they are encumbered, the Arctic ports are closed to navigation 6 months, and those on the Baltic 4 months every year. The chief coast features are the 1. Capes, Sviatoi, Kanin, Ruski, and Medinski on the N.; Chersonese, and Eupatoria, S.W. of the Crimea, in the Black Sea, on the S. 2. Inlets, Petchora Bay, the White Sea, Tcheskaia Bay, and the Varanger Fjord, on the N.; the Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga, on the W.; the Gulf of Perekop, and the sea of Azov, on the S. Obs. 1. The White Sea, a huge gulf of the Arctic Ocean, which penetrates the N. shores of Russia between Capes Kanin and Sviatoi, extends S. and S.W. nearly 400 m. inland, and has an estimated area of about 45,000 sq. m. It is deep and navigable far large vessels. It receives several great rivers, and abounds in fish. Its chief port is Archangel. For six months of the year the White Sea is frozen over, and it is said to owe its name to its appearance during this season. Obs. 2. The Gulf of Finland, an E. arm of the Baltic, is 260 m. long, and from 25 to 90 m. broad. Its waters are usually frozen from October to May. St. Petersburg stands at the E. extremity of the Gulf. Obs. 3. Sea or Gulf of Azov (so called from the river of that name, which flows into it) lies on the N. shore of the Black Sea, and is connected with it by the Strait of Kertch or Yenikale. Its area is upwards of 13,000 sq. m. Its waters are of great importance to Russian commerce, much of the produce of Siberia being sent through them by the Don. It is frozen up from November to March. 3. Straits, viz., the Jugorsche Strait, in the Arctic Ocean, between the mainland and the island Waigatz; and the Strait of Yenikale or Kertch, which connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Azov. ISLANDS.-Appertaining to, or claimed by, European Russia are Waigatz, Novaia Zemlia, Kolguev, and Spitzbergen, in the Arctic Ocean; Aland Isles, Dago, Osel, and a large number of islets in the Baltic Sea. SURFACE.-Russia comprises a large portion of the "Great Plain" of Europe, and is, with some trifling exceptions, nearly flat. On the S. E. frontier of this country lies the highest ground and the culminating summits of Europe; but the most elevated district in the interior, the Valdai plateau, nowhere exceeds 1200 ft., and is really nothing more than a small region of undulating ground. Boundless forests, frozen moss-covered marshland (“tundra "), and great treeless plains ("steppes ") constitute the most characteristic features of the surface of European Russia. Of the 1. Mountains and Hills the most notable are the a. Caucasus Mts., which extend S.E. from the N. shores of the Black Sea to the W. shores of the Caspian, a distance of 750 m. The chain has its culminating point, Elbruz (18,571 ft.), in the central part. The highest portions of the system are covered with perpetual snow, and the slopes in many parts are clothed with magnificent forests. These mountains enclose many fertile valleys, and are rich in minerals. The only pass across them which is practicable for carriages is the Dariel, a military road leading from Mozdok on the N. to Tiflis, on the S. side. b. Ural Mountains which run from N. to S. by W. on the E. frontier of Europe, and form a vast region of undulating country of low elevation. They separate the basins of the Volga and Obi, and contain the sources of many other rivers. Their highest point is Töll Poss, (5,544 ft). They are crossed by a good carriage-road which leads from Perm to Ekaterinburg. c. Valdai Hills which consist of a succession of low plateaux in W. Russia and form the chief water-parting of Russia. 2. Plateaux.-Although the whole of Russia belongs to the great plain of Europe, or the "Sarmatian Plain," it includes within its area some definitely marked variations of level. There may be named here the a. Finland or Olonetz Plateau, which lies between the Gulf of Bothnia and the White Sea, and is chiefly remarkable for the vast number of Lakes which are scattered over its surface. b. Uralo-Baltic Plateau, which stretches from the Baltic to the Ural Mountains, and embraces the Valdai Hills. c. Uralo-Carpathian Plateau, which traverses the countries from W. to E. between the Carpathians and the S. end of the Ural Mountains. DRAINAGE.-Russia lies in four maritime basins which slope, respectively, N., towards the Arctic Ocean; W., towards the Baltic; S., towards the Black Sea; and S. E., towards the Caspian. The chief draining agents are the 1. Rivers' which flow down the a. N. Slope, towards the Arctic Ocean, viz., the Petchora, Mezen, Dwina Onega, and Wym; the last four emptying their waters into the White Sea. b. W. Slope, towards the Baltic, viz., the Kemi, and Ulea, into the Gulf of Bothnia; the Neva, into the Gulf of Finland; the Düna, into the Gulf of Riga; the Niemen, and Vistula. c. S. Slope, into the Black Sea, viz., the Dniester, Bug, Dnieper, Don, and Kuban. d. S.E. Slope, into the Caspian, viz., the Kura, Terek, Volga, and Ural. Obs. 1. The Petchora rises in the Ural Mountains, and after a N.W. course of 1,120 m.-the lower 700 m. of which are navigable-flows into the Arctic by a large estuary which is full of islands. Its tributaries are the Ussa, on the right bank, and the Ishma, and Zylma on the left bank. Obs. 2. The Dwina, formed by the union of the Vychegda, and Suchona, flows, greatly reduced in that they are icebound for several months in the year. 1 Russian rivers rise at such low elevations that their long courses are sluggish and favourable to navigation; but their commercial importance is after a N.W. course of 790 m.-almost all navigable-into the White Sea through the Gulf of Archangel. Its chief tributaries are the Waga, and Pinega. Obs. 3. The Neva, though only 40 m. long, is one of the most important rivers of Russia, because it flows through the metropolis and forms the chief outlet for the commerce of the interior of N. Russia. It issues from the S. W. corner of Lake Ladoga, and flows rapidly W. to the Gulf of Finland. It is, however, usually frozen over from October to April. Obs. 4. The Niemen or Memel, a river of W. Russia, rises in the Government Minsk, flows N.W. over a course of 493 m., and falls into the Kurische-Haff. It is navigable almost to its source, and forms the main outlet for the trade of Lithuania and Volhynia. Obs. 5. The Vistula (pp. 20, 89, 101). Obs. 6. The Dnieper, the third river of Europe as to size, rises in the Government of Smolensk, flows S., S. E., and S. W., and falls, after a course of 1272 m., into the Black Sea. It drains an area of 195,500 sq. m., and has for its chief tributaries the Beresina, and Pripet, on the right; and the Desna, on the left. Obs. 7. The Don comes next, in point of size, to the Dnieper, and is the fourth river of Europe. It rises in the Government Tula, and after a S. and S. W. course of 1,185 m., falls into the Sea of Azov by several mouths. It drains an area of 176,500 sq. m., and has for its chief tributaries the Donetz, on the right; the Choper, and Medvietza, on the left. Obs. 8. The Volga, the largest river in Europe, rises on the Valdai Plateau, flows E. and S. over a course of 2,130 m., and falls into the Caspian Sea, near the town of Astrakhan, by 60 or 70 mouths. It drains an area of 527,000 sq. m., and has for its chief tributaries the Oka, and Sura, on the right; the Mologa, Cheksna, Kama, and Samara on the left. Obs. 9. The Ural, which is next in length to the Don, rises in the Ural Mountains, and after a S. W. and S. course of 1,309 m., falls by several mouths into the N. of the Caspian Sea. It drains an area of 85,000 sq. m. 2. Lakes. Russia possesses two great lake regions, viz., one in the N.W., and the other in the S.E. The most important lakes are in the N.W., and lie E. of the Gulf of Finland. They are a. Ladoga, the most extensive collection of fresh water in Europe, which lies a few miles E. of the head of the Gulf of Finland. Its greatest length, from N.E. to S.W., is nearly 125 m., its greatest breadth about 70 m., its area 8781 sq. m., and its elevation above the sea, 49 feet. It receives 60 rivers, the chief of which is the Swir that connects Ladoga with Onega, and is drained by the Neva. b. Onega, the second in size of the European lakes, lies midway between the White Sea and Ladoga. It is about 140 m. long, from 30 to 40 m. broad, 4,856 sq. m. in extent, and lies at an elevation of 237 ft. above the sea. It receives 10 rivers, and discharges its surplus waters through the Swir, into Ladoga. Obs. 1. Other large lakes in the N.W. region are Peipus, between the Gulfs of Finland and Riga, Saima, and Sego, between the Gulf of Bothnia and the White Sea; Bieloe, and İlmen, S.E. and S. respectively of Ladoga. CLIMATE.-Russia experiences various climates, in consequence of its vast extent. These, though cold and inhospitable, are generally not insalubrious. The Arctic plains are the coldest regions, having a temperature almost always below freezing point. The Steppe Region in the S.E. is subject to the greatest extremes of heat and cold, the thermometer rising, in summer, to 100° Fahr., while in winter it not unfrequently descends to -36° Fahr. The belt of country between these regions has a mean annual temperature of from 32° to 40° Fahr. The rainfall is small, not averaging more than from 15 to 20 inches, even on the Baltic shores where it is greatest. PRODUCTIONS.-The Natural Productions of Russia are varied and valuable. The most characteristic of them are grain, flax, hemp; timber, iron, gold, platinum, fish, and salt. PEOPLE, AND LANGUAGES.-The Population is estimated at 79,832,926, and consists chiefly of Slavonians, Lithuanians, Finns, Tartars, and Jews. The majority of the people speak one or other of the three Russian dialects, viz., Pure Russian, spoken in Moscow and all the central provinces; Malo-Russian, spoken in the S.E. provinces; and White Russian, spoken in Western Russia. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-The political limits of W. Russia stretch beyond the physical boundaries of Europe, both on the E. and on the S. E., including the Asiatic portions of the governments of Perm and Orenburg on the E., and the Lieutenancy of Caucasia on the S. E. For administrative purposes the country is divided into 72 governments and 8 districts, divisions which are, for the most part, named after their chief towns. It is customary to give these under certain great divisions, which are partly geographical and partly ethnological in character. GOVERNMENTS AND TOWNS. 1. Abo. 2. Kuopio. 3. Nyland (Helsingfors). 4. St. 9. Archangel. 10. Jaroslav. 11. Kaluga. 12. Kos- 32. Grodno. 33. Kovno. 34. Minsk. 35. Mohileff. 40. Kalisch. 41. Kielce. 42. Lomza. 43. Lublin. 50. Bessarabia (Kishenau). 51. Don Cossacks (NovoTcherkask). 52. Ekaterinoslav. 53. Kherson. 54. Taurida (Simferopol). 55. Kharkov. 56. Kiev. 57. Poltava. 58. Tcher- 59. Astrakhan. 60. Kazan. 61. Orenburg. 62. 72. Baku. 73. Daghestan (Derbend). 74. Elizabeth- 1 Up to 1863 the bulk of the Russians were serfs, the absolute property of the Crown, the nobles, or other private persons. An imperial decree, dated 1 March, 1861, and coming into final execution in 1863, abolished serfdom throughout the Empire. By this decree upwards of 44 millions of peasants received their freedom. 2 When the name of the chief town differs from that of the government it is added in brackets. NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The seven most populous towns are St. Petersburg (667,963), Moscow (601,969), Warsaw (308,548), Odessa (184,819), Kiev (127,251), Riga (103,000), Kishenau (102,427). Obs. 1. St. Petersburg (so named from Peter the Great, who founded it A.D. 1703), on the River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland, is the metropolis of the Empire, and one of the most magnificent cities in Europe. Its "Winter Palace" is said to be the largest and most sumptuous structure of the kind in the world. The streets are broad and regular, and the squares large and spacious. It is the chief seaport in the Empire, one of the Russian university towns, and a most active centre of commerce and manufactures. Its port is frozen up, in common with all the Baltic ports, from the end of November to the beginning of May. The university towns are St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Kharkov, Dorpat, Helsingfors, and Odessa. The chief seaports are, 1. Commercial-St. Petersburg, Riga, Windau, Narva, Pernau, and Revel in the Baltic; Archangel, and Onega, in the White Sea; Odessa, Taganrog, Berdiansk, and Kertch, in the Black Sea; Astrakhan and Baku, in the Caspian. 2. Naval—Kronstadt, and Sveaborg, in the Baltic; and Nikolaiev, in the Black Sea. The mining centres of Russia are Ekaterinburg, beyond the Ural Mts., Perm, Jeletz, Vixa, and Murom. The chief industrial centres are St. Petersburg, Moscow (silks, cottons, woollens, jewelry, commerce, &c.), Warsaw (linens, woollens, hosiery, leather, &c.), Nijni-Novgorod (fairs), Ekaterinburg, and Perm (mining), Astrakhan (caviar, isinglass, shagreen, &c.), Orenburg (transit trade). Other notable places are Sebastopol (formerly the "Gibraltar of Russia"), Kiev (the former capital, the "Jerusalem of the North," the "mother of Russian towns"), Kazan (former capital of a Tartar kingdom to which the Russians were long tributaries), and Novgorod (where Rurik founded the Russian Empire in 862 A.D.) INDUSTRIES.-The vast majority of the people are engaged in Agriculture and Cattle-rearing. Mining and Metallurgic operations are carried on upon a vast scale. Manufactures include cotton and woollen goods, linens, leather, wooden articles, machinery, and agricultural implements. Fishing, Lumbering, and Transit Trade are also important branches of Russian industry. COMMUNICATIONS.-The Great Roads of the Empire are kept in excellent condition; the Smaller Roads are bad. In winter sleighing is in great vogue. Water communication intersects the country in every direction; and Railways, and Telegraph wires traverse all important parts. GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The Government is an absolute hereditary monarchy. The Religion of five-sixths of the people is Greek Catholicism. Roman Catholics, Jews, Protestants, and Mohammedans also find religious toleration. Education is improving, but it is still in a very defective condition. |