nationalities. Of these the chief are Slavs, Servians, and Bulgarians, Turks, Greeks, and Albanians. There are also, Armenians, Jews, Gipsies, and Foreigners, amounting together to about 330,000 souls. The principal Languages are Bulgarian and Servian, spoken by the Slavonians; Turkish, spoken by the Ottomans; and Albanian, spoken by the Albanians.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-The European portion of the Ottoman Empire as remodelled by "The Treaty of Berlin," 1878, consists of the following parts, viz. :—1. Immediate Possessions. 2. The Autonomous Province of Eastern Roumelia. 3. Bosnia and Herzegovina, occupied and administered by Austria. 4. The Tributary Principality of Bulgaria. For Administrative purposes Turkey is divided into Vilayets, or Governments: the Vilayets are subdivided into Sandjaks, or Districts: the Sandjaks, into Kazas, or arrondissements : the Kazas, into Rahijs, or Communes.

Obs. Map-makers still retain the Historical Divisions, Roumelia, Bulgaria, Bosnia, Albania, &c., also the Classical Divisions, Macedonia, Thrace, Thessaly, Illyricum, &c. But the Turks themselves recognise none but the existing Official Divisions.

The following table shows the Official Divisions in their local relation to the Historical Divisions.

Obs. The Vilayets and Sandjaks are named respectively after their capital towns.

II. TRIBUTARY, OCCUPIED, AND AUTONOMOUS POSSESSIONS.

Bosnia

Bosna Serai

Herzegovina.. Mostar

Tirnova, Varna, Rustchuk,
Widin, Sofia.

II. E. ROUMELIA.. N. Adrianople. Philippopolis. Philippopolis, Sliven.
III. BOSNIA AND

HERZEGOVINA

......

Novibazar, Seraievo, Svornik,
Banjaluka, Bihatz, Travnik.
Mostar.

NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The five most populous towns of Turkey are Constantinople (600,000), Adrianople (60,000), Saloniki (60,000), Philippopolis (50,000), and Gallipoli (50,000).

Obs. Constantinople, the metropolis of Turkey, "The Paradise of the Orientals," takes its name from Constantine the Great, its founder. Lying at the N. E. extremity of the sea of Marmara, and on the banks of the Golden Horn and the Bos

1 The Sandjak of Novibazar is excepted from the Austrian occupation, and remains under the administration of Turkey.

porus, it is the most magnificently situated city in Europe. It comprises within its limits Galata, with Pera on the E. shore of the Golden Horn, and Scutari on the Asiatic side of the Bosporus. Seen from without, this city presents the most gorgeous and imposing appearance; within, its streets are narrow, crowded, encumbered with filth, and swarming with dogs. The manufactures are chiefly meerschaum pipes, and leather goods; but they are not important.

The chief ports of Turkey are Burgas on the Black Sea, and Avlona, on the Adriatic.

The chief commercial centres are Scutari, Bosna Serai, Yanina, Rodosto, Widin, Silistria, and Rustchuk.

INDUSTRIES. Turkey is now almost entirely an Agricultural country. But its agriculture is in a primitive and declining condition. The principal objects of culture are grain, fine fruits, silk, tobacco, cotton, flax, and hemp. Manufactures, which were formerly of some importance, are now on the wane. They include silk, woollen, and cotton fabrics; carpets, leather, filigree work, meerschaum pipes, and attar of roses.

Obs. The chief exports are wool, hides, corn, cotton, fine fruits, and sponges ; the imports, cotton and woollen stuffs, cutlery, hardware, and machinery. COMMUNICATIONS.—These are of the most wretched and inadequate descriptions. Carriage roads are almost unknown, and Water Carriage is very deficient. The transit trade is done by mules and other beasts of burden, or by rafts on the rivers. The total extent of Railway open for traffic is less than 1,000 m.; but there are at work 30,000 m. of Telegraph Wires.

GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-By the Constitution of the 26th Dec. 1876, Turkey became a Constitutional and Hereditary Monarchy. The Legislative Power is in the hands of the Sultan ; while the Executive Power is shared by the Sultan and the "General Assembly," which consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The Religion of the State is Mohammedanism. But while only some 25 p. c. of the people are Moslems, nearly 60 p. c. are Christians of the Greek and Armenian churches. The remainder consists of Jews, Roman Catholics, and various Sectarians. Education is compulsory for a certain time; but the range of subjects taught in the elementary schools is very circumscribed.

ROUMANIA.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Latitude. Between 43° 40′ and 48° 12′ N.

Longitude. Between 22° 28′ and 29° 40' E.

Area. 49,247 sq. m.

Obs. The longitude and area here given are of Roumania as modified by the Treaty of Berlin (1878).

POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-Roumania lies in the S. E. of Europe. It is bounded on the

N. by Russia, and Austria. E. by Russia, and the Black Sea. S. by Bulgaria, from which it is separated by the Danube. W. by Bulgaria, Servia, and Hungary.

COASTS.-Roumania has upwards of 100 m. of coast on the Black Sea, which was ceded to her, with the Dobrudja, by the "Treaty of Berlin," 1878.

Of its

Inlets, the chief are, the Kilia, Sulina, and St. George mouths of the Danube, and Lake Rassein.

ISLANDS. These are the islands forming the delta of the Danube, viz.: Letti, Tchata, St. George, Moish, and Dranova, and the Isle of Serpents, some 60 m. E. of the mouths of the Danube.

SURFACE. The surface is mountainous in the W.; flat in the E.; has a good deal of low marshy ground in the S.; and is well wooded. The Mountains consist of the E. spurs and buttresses of the Carpathians and the Transsylvanian Alps.

DRAINAGE.-Roumania belongs entirely to the basin of the Danube, and is drained by affluents of that river. The chief Rivers are the Pruth, Sereth, Jalomitza, Aluta, and Schyl.

Obs. The Pruth rises in the Carpathians, flows S.E. between Roumania and Bessarabia, and after a course of 391 m. joins the Danube on the left bank, 75 m. W. of the Black Sea.

The Sereth rises in the Carpathians, flows S. E. over a course of 401 m. and falls into the Danube a little W. of Galatz.

The Jalomitza rises in the Carpathians, flows S. E. and E., and falls into the Danube W. of Hirsova.

CLIMATE. The climate is variable and unhealthy; it is very hot in summer, and very cold in winter.

PRODUCTIONS.-The chief Products are wheat, maize, barley, millet, hemp, and tobacco; vines, and fruits; timber, and pasturage. Large numbers of sheep and cattle are reared, and fine wool is exported. Minerals are plentiful, but are very inadequately realized. Salt and petroleum are abundant, and the amber from the valley of the Buseo is renowned.

PEOPLE AND LANGUAGES.-The Population is estimated at 5,376,000, of whom more than four and a half millions are Roumanians-i.e. descendants of the ancient Dacians and Goths, mixed after Trajan's time with the Italian and Gothic colonists. The remainder is made up of Jews, Bohemians, Slavs, Germans, Hungarians, Armenians, and Greeks. The Language of the State is Roumanian, a corrupt dialect of the Latin.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-For administrative purposes Roumania is divided into 31 Districts, or Departments. These are subdivided into Plasi, or arrondissements, which are again divided into Communes. The Dobrudja, acquired under the "Treaty of Berlin," has not yet been organised.

NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The five most populous towns are Bucharest (177,646), Jassy (90,000), Galatz (80,000), Botuschany (39,941), Ploesti (33,000).

Obs. Bucharest, the capital of Wallachia and the metropolis of all Roumania, is situated on the river Dimbovitza and in a swampy plain. It is the chief entrepôt of the commerce between Austria and Turkey. It covers an area of more than 20 sq. m., and possesses 116 Greek churches.

The chief ports are Galatz, and Braila, on the Danube.

The chief industrial centres are Bucharest (transit trade), Braila, Galatz, Giurgevo, and Krajova.

INDUSTRIES.-The most important industries are Agriculture, Cattle-rearing, and Commerce. Roumania possesses scarcely any

Manufactures.

Obs. The chief exports are wheat, maize, fine wool, wood, and cattle. The chief imports, manufactured goods, especially cottons.

COMMUNICATIONS.-These are very imperfect and very inadequate for the proper development of the trade of the country. There are scarcely any good Macadamised roads; the Rivers are navigable for barges, but the navigation is much impeded by the neglected state of the channels. There are about 800 m. of Railway, or 1 m. to every 60 sq. m. of country, and about 4,500 m. of Telegraph Wires.

GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The Government of the country is a constitutional and hereditary Monarchy. The Religion of the State, and of nearly the whole of the people, is that of the Greek Church. Education, though now engaging the attention of the State, is lamentably defective.

SERVIA.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Latitude. Between 42° 25′ and 45° N.

Longitude. Between 19° 10' and 22° 45′ E. Area. 18,780 sq. m.

POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-Servia lies on the N. of the Balkan Peninsula. It is bounded on the

N. by Hungary. E. by Roumania, and Bulgaria. S. by Turkey. W. by Bosnia.

SURFACE. The surface, generally speaking, is very mountainous, being almost wholly covered by ramifications of three great mountain systems, viz.: of the Carpathians in the N.E., of the Balkans in the S. E. and S., and of the Dinaric Alps in the W. Between the mountain ranges are several narrow, and a few wide, valleys; while near the centre of the country, and in the N., are some considerable plains.

Obs. The summits of the mountains seldom exceed 5,000 ft. in height; the bulk of them are below 2,000 ft.; while the loftiest point in the country, Kopavnik (6,037 ft.), occurs in the Kopavnik Mts.

It be

DRAINAGE.The Servian territory is copiously watered. longs to the basin of the Black Sea, and is drained by the Danube and its tributaries the Save (with its affluents the Drina and Kolubara), Morava, and Timok.

Obs. The Morava, the chief river of Servia, is formed by the union of the E. and W. Morava, the former rising in the Kara Dagh, the latter in the Javor Golia Mts. It traverses the centre of the country from S. to N., dividing it into two unequal parts, and joins the Danube 6 m. N.E. of Semendria.

CLIMATE. The climate is variable, excessively cold in winter, very hot in summer, with much wind and rain in the autumn. Ague is prevalent in spring and autumn.

PRODUCTIONS.-The chief Productions are grain, tobacco, silk, wine, timber, salt, copper, lead, and iron. Immense herds of pigs and goats are reared in the forests, whence also valonia is obtained.

PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE.-The Population is estimated at 1,720,000, the greater part of whom are Servians or Slavs; the remainder consists of Wallachians, Gipsies, and Germans. The Language spoken is Servian, a variety of the S. Slavonic group.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-Previous to 1878, Servia was divided into 17 Districts and the town of Belgrad. The territory acquired under the "Treaty of Berlin" has not yet been organised.

NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The chief towns are Belgrad, Semendria, Kruschevatz, Kragujevatz, Jagodina, Alexinatz, and Poschega.

Obs. Belgrad, the capital of Servia, lies on the Danube, at the confluence of the Save. It is strongly fortified, but its streets are filthy, ill-paved, and inadequately lighted. It is an important port, and the chief entrepôt of the trade between Turkey and Austria. It has manufactories of arms, carpets, silk goods, cutlery, and saddlery.

INDUSTRIES. The principal part of the people are occupied in Agriculture. Commerce holds the next place of importance; there is some Mining; but Manufactures hardly exist out of Belgrad. The chief exports are cereals, live stock, pigs, sheep, and goat-skins.

COMMUNICATIONS.-Except the Save and the Danube the rivers are not much used for navigation. Roads are few, and not favourable for the development of commerce. There is no Railway in the country, and only about 920 m. of Telegraphic Lines.

GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-Servia is a constitutional and hereditary Monarchy. The Executive Power is represented by the chief of the State. The Legislative Power is exercised by the Prince and the National Assembly together. The Religion of the State is that of the Orthodox Greek Church, but there is freedom for all other religions. Education is gratuitous and compulsory, but is not in a very satisfactory condition.