6. The sudden change from the restraints of a rigid government to the enjoyment of constitutional liberty, exerted, among the masses who had hitherto enjoyed no political privileges, and especially in the provinces dependent upon Hungary, an influence the most adverse to rational freedom. Liberty was construed to mean license in some places the Jews were plundered and maltreated: officers and jurors who did their duty were sacrificed to the vengeance of the mob: the imbittered feelings and prejudices of race were kindled into all their fury; and the most horrid atrocities were committed, while the new government, scarcely organized, was too feeble to afford protection to the persons and property of the more peaceful inhabitants. Calls upon the Austrian government for assistance from the Austrian troops in the provinces to suppress this anarchy were unheeded; and the indifference thus shown to the welfare of Hungary gave rise to the first threats of separation.

7. A more alarming danger to Hungary was the opposition against her in her own provinces, first secretly encouraged, and afterwards openly aided, by the Austrian government. The Hungarian dominions embrace a population of about fifteen millions, of whom only six millions are Magyars; and unfortunately the other eight millions were so jealous of the Magyar ascendency as to be found either cold to the cause of Hungary, or openly joining the Austrian party. First the Croats, a portion of the southern Slavi, or Slavonians,' after demanding entire independence of Hungarian rule, and showing a disposition to place themselves in more immediate connection with Austria, also a Slavonic nation, took up arms against Hungary, and rejected all advances towards reconciliation. Notwithstanding the unconstitutionality of their position, the emperor sided in their favor, and sent Austrian armies to their aid. Portions of Slavonia proper joined the Croats; and the Serbs,' or Servians, in éastern Slavonia, distinguishing their revolt by the greatest atrocities, with unrelenting fury laid waste the Magyar villages, and massacred the unresisting inhabitants. The actual beginning of the war on the part of Hungary was the bombardment, on the 12th of June, 1848, of Car

1. The Slavonians comprise a numerous family of nations, descendants of the ancient Sarmatians. The Slavonfan language extends throughout the whole of European Russia; and dialects of it are spoken by the Croats, Servians, and Slavonians proper, and also by the Poles

and Bohemians.

2. The Serbs or Servians, who belong to the wide-spread Slavonian stock, are inhabitants of the Turkish province of Servia; but many of the Serbs are scattered throughout the southern Hungarian provinces.

lowitz,' the metropolis or holy city of the Serbs. The city made a brave defence the Ottoman Serbs hastened across the frontiers to the assistance of their brethren, and the Magyars were driven back into the fortress of Peterwardein. The whole Servian race in the Banat' then rose in rebellion, and the peninsula a at the confluence of the Theiss and the Danube became the theatre of a furious conflict between the hostile races. Finally, on the 29th of June, the Austrian cabinet, throwing off all disguise, announced the intention of Austria to support Croatia openly. It soon appeared, also, that the altered condition of Austria, consequent upon the late triumphs of the imperial arms in Italy, had determined the emperor to revoke the concessions recently made to Hungary.

8. The Hungarian Diet, now convinced that the constitution and independence of Hungary must be defended by force of arms, decreed a levy that should raise the Hungarian army to two hundred thousand men. In the meantime Jellachich, the ban, or governor, of Croatia, had advanced unopposed into Hungary, at the head of an Austrian and Croatian army, and had arrived within twenty miles of Pesth, when the eloquence and energy of Kossuth, one of the leaders of the patriot party, collected a considerable body of troops, and on the 29th of September Jellachich was repulsed and the capital saved. The ban fled, and on the 5th of October the rear guard of the Croatian army, ten thousand strong, fell into the hands of the Hungarians.

9. Hitherto both parties, the invaders and invaded, appeared to be acting under the orders of the emperor-king, a kind-hearted man, but of moderate abilities, and unfitted for the trying situation in which he found himself placed. Wearied by the contentions in dif ferent parts of his empire, desiring the good of all his subjects, but distracted by diverse counsels, and involved, by a series of intrigues, in conflicting engagements, Ferdinand abdicated the throne on the

1. Carlowitz is a town of Slavonia, on the right bank of the Danube, four miles south-east of Peterwardein. (Map No. XVII.)

2. Peterwardein, the capital of the Slavonian military frontier district, and one of the strongest fortresses in the Austrian empire, is on the south bank of the Danube, in eastern Slavonia. It derives its present name from Peter the Hermit, who marshalled here the soldiers of the first crusade. (Map No. XVII.)

3. The Banat, or Hungary-beyond-the-Theiss, is a large division of south-eastern Hungary, having Transylvania on the east, and Slavonia on the west. (Map No. XVII.)

a." The very spot that was, in 1697, the theatre that witnessed the splendid victories of Eugene of Savoy over the Turks, and which were followed by the peace of Carlowitz, that memorable era in the history of the house of Austria and of Europe.”—Stiles' Austria, ii. p. 68, See p. 390.

2d of December, but a short time after the second Revolution in Vienna, (see p. 542;) and, by a family arrangement, the crown was transferred, not to the next heir, Ferdinand's brother, but to his nephew Francis Joseph. The Hungarian Diet, declaring that Ferdinand had no right to lay down the crown of Hungary and transfer it to another that the same was settled by statute on the direct heirs of the house of Hapsburg-and, moreover, that Francis Joseph had not taken the requisite oath, in the Hungarian capital, to preserve inviolate the constitution, laws, and liberties, of the Hungarians,-denied the right of the new emperor to reign over their nation. The Hungarians, however, averse to a war with Austria, attempted negotiations for a settlement of all difficulties; but the Austrian cabinet, desirous of setting aside the constitutional privileges recently granted to Hungary, had resolved upon the unconditional submission of the Hungarians; and the new emperor yielded himself to the course of policy dictated by his ministers.

10. With the alarming prospect of a desperate conflict with the whole power of the Austrian empire, several of the Hungarian leaders, who had thus far supported all the measures of the movement party, withdrew altogether from the struggle; but the great mass of the Hungarian people, more than one-half of the high aristocracy, and nearly all the untitled nobility, and both Romanist and Protestant clergy, rallied around Kossuth, and sided with the country. Although the peasantry, whom the constitution had elevated from the condition of serfs to that of freemen, rose en masse, arms and ammunition were wanting, and the regular troops of Hungary were still in Italy, fighting the battles of Austria. Manufactories of powder and arms had to be established; but they arose as if by magic; and in every town the anvils rang with the clang of the arms which the artizans forged by night and by day. But, after all possible efforts, the Hungarian army, at the actual opening of the campaign in December 1848, amounted to only about sixty-five thousand men, which was as nothing compared with the forces which Austria was concentrating for the subjugation of the country.

11. The plan of Prince Windischgratz, commander-in-chief of the Austrian forces, consisted in invading Hungary from nine points at the same time-all the lines of attack tending to a common centre, the capital of the kingdom. The main divisions of the Austrian army, entering Hungary from the north and west, met with but little opposition from the Hungarian general Gorgey, who had the com

mand in that quarter, and on the 5th of January, 1849, both Windischgratz and Jellachich entered Pesth without striking a blow. Kossuth and the government retired to Debreczin,' in the southeastern part of the kingdom, leaving a strong garrison, however, in the almost impregnable fortress of Comorn,' while the Hungarian forces gradually concentrated in the valley of the Theiss, from Eperies to the Danube. To protect the rear, General Bem, a Pole, was sent to Bukowina,' at the eastern extremity of Transylvania, at the head of ten thousand men.

12. On the 30th of January the Hungarians lost the strong fortress of Esseck' in Slavonia, which surrendered with about five thousand men. About the same time Bem was driven from Bukowina, and, after repeated disasters, from Transylvania also, the Saxons and Wallachs, who form the bulk of the population, having joined the Austrians. The Szeklers, however, a wild, restless, and warlike race of southern Hungary, espousing the side of the Hungarians, placed themselves under the command of Bem, who, thus reënforced, was soon in a condition to resume the offensive. Again he entered Transylvania, at the head of a well-disciplined corps of twenty thou sand men; and although ten thousand Russian troops had crossed the frontiers to aid the Austrians, he repeatedly defeated their united forces, took Hermanstadt' after a severe battle, and entered Cronstadt without opposition. In a few weeks Bem was complete master

1. Debreczin, the great mart for the produce of northern and eastern Hungary, is situated in a flat, sandy, and arid plain, one hundred and fourteen miles east of Pesth. Population fortyfive thousand. (Map No. XVII.)

2. Comorn, situated on a point of land formed by the confluence of the Waag and the Danube, is forty-six miles north-east of Buda. The citadel is one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, and has never been taken. (Map No. XVII.)

3. Eperies is a fortified town of Upper Hungary, on an affluent of the Theiss, one hundred and forty miles north-east of Pesth.

4. Bukowina, ceded by the Turks to Austria in 1774, is now included in Galicia and Lodomeria. (Map No. XVII.)

5. Esseck, (ancient Mursia,) the capital of Slavonia, is a strongly-fortified town situated on the Drave, thirteen miles from its confluence with the Danube. It is one hundred and thirtyfour miles south of Buda. Mursia, founded by the emperor Adrian, in the year 125, became the capital of Lower Pannonia. (Map No. XVII.)

6. The Wallacks-properly the inhabitants of the Turco-Russian province of Wallachia, are the descendants of the ancient Dacians. (Pronounced Wol'-laks: Wol-la'-ke-a.)

7. Hermanstadt, the capital of the "Saxon land," a Saxon portion of Transylvania, is situated in an extensive and fertile plain, on a branch of the Aluta, in the southern part of Transylvania. (Map No. XVII.)

8. Cronstadt, the largest and most populous, as well as the principal manufacturing and commercial town of Transylvania-also in the "Saxon land"-is seventy miles east of Her manstadt. (Map No. XVII.)

of Transylvania, from which he passed into the Banat, and captured Temeswar,' its capital.

13. In the meantime important events had occurred in the valley of the Theiss. About the first of February General Dembinski, also a Pole, was invested, by Kossuth, with the command-in-chief of the Hungarian armies. Although the appointment of Dembinski aroused the jealousy of the native Hungarian officers, who seconded him with little cordiality, yet his plan of operations was judicious. Leaving strong garrisons at Szegedin' and on the Maros,' about the middle of February he concentrated his forces in the upper valley of the Theiss, to meet the Austrians, then advancing in full force under Windischgratz. In the vicinity of Kapolna,' on the 26th and 27th, a severe battle was fought between forty thousand Hungarians and sixty thousand Austrians, without any decisive result; but had it not been for the inactivity of Gorgey, who restricted himself to a defensive position, the Austrians would have suffered a total defeat.

14. Early in March Dembinski resigned, and General Vetter was appointed commander-in-chief of the Hungarian forces; but owing to the illness of Vetter the command soon devolved on Gorgey, under whom was gained a series of victories by which the Austrians were for a time driven out of Hungary. On the 4th of April Jellachich was defeated at Tapiobieske,' and on the 6th the corps of Windischgratz at Gödöllö: on the 9th Gorgey took Waitzen' by storm on the 19th the Ausrians were defeated in a desperate battle at Nagy-Sarlo; and on the 20th Gorgey relieved the fortress of Comorn, which the Austrians had closely besieged during several months. In a few days the main body of the Austrians was driven from the right bank of the Danube, when nothing but a routed army remained between the Hungarians and the city of Vienna. Had Gorgey then followed up his successes, as he was strongly urged to do by Kossuth, in two days his forces might have bivouacked in the Austrian capital; but he remained inactive eight days at Comorn, and then proceeded to the siege of the fortress of Buda,*

1. Temeswar, the capital of the Banat, is a strongly-fortified town, seventy-five miles northeast of Peterwardein. It was taken from the Turks in 1716 by Prince Eugene. The Bega canal, seventy-three miles in length, passes through the town. Temeswar is supposed to represent the ancient Tabiscus, to which Ovid was banished. (Map No. XVII.)

2. Szegedin is a large town of Hungary, situated at the confluence of the Maros and the Theiss, one hundred miles south-east of Pesth. (Map No. XVII.)

3. For the river Maros, and the towns Kapolna, Tapiobieske, Gödöllö, Waitzen, and NagySarlo, see Map No. XVII.

4. Buda, situated on the right bank of the Danube, one hundred and thirty-five miles south