which she had taken refuge. The walls of Carthage were levelled to the ground, the buildings of the city were burned, a part of the Carthaginian territory was given to the king of Numid' ia, and the rest became a Roman province. (146 B. C.) Thus perished the republic of Carthage, after an existence of nearly eight hundred years, like Greece, the victim of Roman ambition.

We give below a description of Jerusalem, which was omitted by mistake in its proper place.

Jerusalem, a famous city of southern Palestine, and long the capital of the kingdom of Judah, is situated on a hill in a mountainous country, between two small valleys, in one of which, on the west, the brook Gihon runs with a south-eastern course, to join the brook Kedron in the narrow valley of Jehoshaphat, east of the city. The modern city, built about three hundred years ago, is entirely surrounded by walls, barely two and a-half miles in circuit, and flanked here and there with square towers. The boundaries of the old city varied greatly at different times; and they are so imperfectly marked, the walls having been wholly destroyed, that few facts can be gathered respecting them. The interior of the modern city is divided by two valleys, intersecting each other at right angles, into four hills, on which history, sacred and profane, has stamped the imperishable names of Zion, Acra, Bezetha, and Moriah. Mount Zion, on the south-west, the "City of David," is now the Jewish and Armenian quarter: Acra, or the lower city, on the north-west, is the Christian quarter; while the Mosque of Omar, with its sacred enclosure, occupies the hill of Moriah, which was crowned by the House of the Lord built by Solomon. West of the Christian quarter of the city is Mount Calvary, the scene of the Saviour's crucifixion; and on the eastern side of the valley of Jehoshaphat is the Mount of Olives, on whose western slope are the gardens of Gethsemane, enclosed by a wall, and still in a sort of ruined cultivation. A little west of Mount Zion, and near the base of Mount Calvary, is the pool of Gihon, near which "Zadok the priest and Nathan the prophet anointed Solomon king over Israel." South of Mount Zion is the valley of Hinnom, watered by the brook Gihon. A short distance up the valley of Jehoshaphat, and issuing from beneath the walls of Mount Moriah, is

"Siloa's brook, that flow'd Fast by the oracles of God."

Jerusalem and its suburbs abound with many interesting localities, well authenticated as the scenes of events connected with the history of the patriarchs, and the sufferings of Christ; but to hundreds of others shown by the monks, minute criticism denies any claims to our respect. Considered as a modern town, the city is of very little importance: its population is about ten thousand, two-thirds of whom are Mohammedans: it has no trade-no industry whatevernothing to give it commercial importance, except the manufacture, by the monks, of shells, beads, and relics, large quantities of which are shipped from the port of Jaffa, for Italy, Spain, and Portugal.

Jerusalem is generally believed to be identical with the Salem of which Melchisedek was king in the time of Abraham. When the Israelites entered the Holy Land it was in the possession of the Jebusites; and although Joshua took the city, the citadel on Mount Zion was held by the Jebusites until they were dislodged by David, who made Jerusalem the metropolis of his kingdom.

CHAPTER VI.

ROMAN HISTORY:

FROM THE CONQUEST OF GREECE AND CARTHAGE, 146 B. C., TO THE

COMMENCEMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA.

ANALYSIS. 1. Situation of SPAIN AFTER THE fall of CartHAGE. [Celtibérians. Lusftánians.]-2. Character, exploits, and death of Viriáthus.-3. Subsequent history of the Lusitapians. War with the Numan' tians. [Numan' tia.]-4. SERVILE WAR IN SICILY. Situation of Sicily. Events of the Servile war.-5. DISSENSIONS OF THE GRACCHI. Corrupt state of society at Rome.-6. Country and city population.-7. Efforts of the tribunes. Character and efforts of Tiberius Gracchus. Condition of the public lands.-8. The agrarian laws proposed by Tiberius.-9. Opposed by the nobles, but finally passed. Triumvirate appointed to enforce them. Disposition of the treasures of At' talus.-10. Circumstances of the death of Tiberius.—11. Continued opposition of the aristocracy-tribuneship of Caius Gracchus-and circumstances of his death.-12. Condition of Rome after the fall of the Gracchi.-13. Profligacy of the Roman senate, and circumstances of the first JUGURTHINE WAR.-14. Renewal of the war with Jugurtha. Events of the war, and fate of Jugurtha. [Mauritánia.]-15. GERMANIC INVASION. [Cimbri and Teu' tones.] Successive Roman defeats. [Danube. Noreja.] 16. Márius, appointed to the command, defeats the Teu' tones. [The Rhone. Aix.] 17. The Cimbri. Greatness of the danger with which Rome was threatened.-18. THE SOCIAL WAR.-19. FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. [Pontus. Eu' menes. Per' gamus.]-20. Causes of the Mithridatic war, and successes of Mithridates.-CIVIL WAR BETWEEN MA'RIUS AND SYLLA.-22. Triumph of the Márian faction. Death and character of Márius.-23. Continuance of the civil war. Events in the East. Sylla master of Rome.-23. Proscription and massacres. Death of Sylla. -25. The Márian faction in Spain. SERVILE WAR IN ITALY.

26. SECOND AND THIRD MITHRIDATIC WARS. Lucullus. Manil' ius, and the Manil' ian law.-27. Pompey's successes in the East. Reduction of Palestine. Death of Mithridates.-28. CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. Situation of Rome at this period. Character and designs of Catiline. Circumstances that favored his schemes. By whom opposed.-29. Cicero elected consul. Flight, defeat, and death of Catiline.-30. THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. Division of power.-31. Casar's conquests in Gaul, Germany, and Britain. Death of Crassus. Rivalry between Cæsar and Pompey. [The Rhine. Parthia.]-32. Commencement of the CIVIL WAR BETWEEN CESAR AND POMPEY. Flight of the latter. [Raven' na.]-33. Cæsar's successes. Sole dictator. His defeat at Dyrrachium.-34. Battle of Pharsalia. Flight, and death of Pompey. [Pharsalia. Peleu' sium.]-35. Cleopatra. Alexandrine war. Reduction of Pontus. [Pharos.]-36. Cæsar's clemency. Servility of the senate. The war in Africa, and death of Cato. [Thapsus.]—37. Honors bestowed upon Cæsar. Useful changes-reformation of the calendar.-38. The war in Spain. [Munda.]—39. Cæsar, dictator for life. His gigantic projects. He is suspected of aiming at sovereign power.-40. Conspiracy against him. His death.-41. Conduct of Brutus. Mark Antony's oration. Its effects.-42. Ambition of Antony. Civil war. SECOND TRIUMVI RATE. The proscription that followed.-43. Brutus and Cassius. Their defeat at Philippi. [Philippi.)-44. Antony in Asia Minor,-at the court of Cleopatra. [Tarsus.] Civil war in Italy. 45. Antony's return. Reconciliation of the rivals, and division of the empire among them. [Brundusium.]-46. The peace is soon broken. Sextius Pompey. Lepidus. Antony. 47. The war between Octávius and Antony. Battle of Actium, and disgraceful flight of Antony.-48. Death of Antony and Cleopatra.-49, OCTA' VIUS SOLE MASTER OF THE ROMAN WORLD. Honors and offices conferred upon him. Character of his government.-50. Success. ful wars, followed by a general peace. Extent of the Roman empire. Birth of the Saviour,

I. SPAIN

1. AFTER the fall of Carthage and the Grecian republics, which were the closing events of the preceding chapter, the attention of the Roman people was for a time principally directed to Spain. When, near the close of the second Punic war, the CarAFTER THE thaginian dominion in Spain ended, that country was regarded as being under Roman jurisdiction; although, beyond the immediate vicinity of the Roman garrisons, the native tribes, the most prominent of which were the Celtibérians1 and Lusitánians,' long maintained their independence.

FALL OF CARTHAGE.

2. At the close of the third Punic war, Viriáthus, a Lusitánian prince, whose character resembles that of the Wallace of Scotland, had triumphed over the Roman legions in several engagements, and had already deprived the republic of nearly half of her possessions in the peninsula. During eight years he bade defiance to the most for midable hosts, and foiled the ablest generals of Rome, when the Roman governor Ca' pio, unable to cope with so great a general, treacherously procured his assassination.a (B. C. 140.)

3. Soon after the death of Viriáthus the Lusitánians submitted to a peace, and many of them were removed from their mountain fastnesses to the mild district of Valen' cia,' where they completely lost their warlike character; but the Numan' tians' rejected with scorn the insidious overtures of their invaders, and continued the war. Two Roman generals, at the head of large armies, were conquered by them, and on both occasions treaties of peace were concluded with the vanquished, in the name of the Roman people, but after

1. The Celtibérians, whose country was sometimes called Celtibéria, occupied the greatest part of the interior of Spain around the head waters of the Tagus.

2. The Lusitanians, whose country was called Lusitania, dwelt on the Atlantic coast, and when first known, principally between the rivers Douro and Tagus.

3. The modern district or province of Valencia extends about two hundred miles along the south-eastern coast of Spain. The city of Valencia, situated near the mouth of the river Guadalaviar, (the ancient Tusia,) is its capital. (Map No. XIII.)

4. Numan' tia, a celebrated town of the Celtibérians, was situated near the source of the river Douro, and near the site of the modern village of Chavaler, and about one hundred and twenty-five miles north-east from Madrid.

a. Viráthus, at first a shepherd, called by the Romans a robber, then a guerilla chief, and finally an eminent military hero, aroused the Lusitanians to avenge the wrongs and injuries inflicted upon them by Roman ambition. He was unrivalled in fertility of resources under defeat, skill in the conduct of his troops, and courage in the hour of battle. Accustomed to a free life in the mountains, he never indulged himself with the luxury of a bed: bread and meat were his only food, and water his only beverage; and being robust, hardy, adroit, always cheerful, and dreading no danger, he knew how to avail himself of the wild chivalry of his countrymen, and to keep alive in them the spirit of freedom. During eight years he constantly barassed the Roman armies, and defeated many Roman generals, several of whom lost their lives in battle. His name still lives in the songs and legends of early Spain.

wards rejected by the Roman senate. Scip' io Emiliánus, at the head of sixty thousand men, was then sent to conduct the war, and laying siege to Numan' tia, garrisoned by less than ten thousand men, he finally reduced the city, but not until the Numan' tians, worn out by toil and famine, and finally yielding to despair, had destroyed all their women and children, and then, setting fire to their city, had perished, almost to a man, on their own swords, or in the flames. (B. C. 133.) The destruction of Numan' tia was followed by the submission of nearly all the tribes of the peninsula, and Spain henceforth became a Roman province.

4. Two years before the fall of Numan' tia, Sicily had become the theatre of a servile war, which merits attention principally on account of the view it gives of the state of the conquered countries then under the jurisdiction of Rome. The calamities which usually follow in the train of long-continued war had swept away II. SERVILE most of the original population of Sicily, and a large WAR. portion of the cultivated lands in the island had been added, by conquest, to the Roman public domain, which had been formed into large estates, and let out to speculators, who paid rents for the same into the Roman treasury. In the wars of the Romans, and indeed of most nations at this period, large numbers of the captives taken in war were sold as slaves; and it was by slave labor the estates in Sicily were cultivated. The slaves in Sicily were cruelly treated, and as most of them had once been free, and some of high rank, it is not surprising that they should seek every favorable opportunity to rise against their masters. When once, therefore, a revolt had broken out, it spread rapidly over the whole island. Seventy thou sand of the slaves were at one time under arms, and in four successive campaigns four Roman prætorian armies were defeated. The most frightful atrocities were perpetrated on both sides, but the rebellion was finally quelled by the destruction of most of those who had taken part in it. (B. C. 133.)

III. DISSEN-
SIONS OF

5. While these events were occuring in the Roman provinces, affairs in the capital, generally known in history as the "dissensions of the Gracchi," were fast ripening for civil war. More than two hundred years had elapsed since the animosities of patricians and plebeians were extinguished by an equal participation in public honors; but the wealth of conquered provinces, and the numerous lucrative and honorable offices, both civil and military, that had been created, had produced

THE

GRACCHI.

corruption at home, by giving rise to factions which contended for the greatest share of the spoils, while, apart from these, new distinctions had arisen, and the rich and the poor, or the illustrious and the obscure, now formed the great parties in the State.

6. As the nobles availed themselves of the advantages of their station to accumulate wealth and additional honors, the large slave plantations increased in the country to the disparagement of free labor, and the detriment of small landholders, whose numbers were constantly diminishing, while the city gradually became crowded with an idle, indigent, and turbulent populace, attracted thither by the frequent cheap or gratuitous distributions of corn, and by the frequency of the public shows, and made up, in part, of emancipated slaves, who were kept as retainers in the families of their former masters. So long as large portions of Italy remained unsettled, there was an outlet for the redundancy of this growing populace; but the entire Italian territory being now occupied, the indigent could no longer be provided for in the country, and the practice of colonizing distant provinces had not yet been adopted.

7. The evils of such a state of society were numerous and formidable, and such as to threaten the stability of the republic. Against the increasing political influence of the aristocracy, the tribunes of the people had long struggled, but rather as factious demagogues than as honest defenders of popular rights. At length Tibérius Grac' chus, a tribune, and grandson of Scipio Africanus, one of the noblest and most virtuous among the young men of his time, commenced the work of reform by proposing to enforce the Licinian law, which declared that no individual should possess more than five hundred jugers,a (about two hundred and seventy-five acres) of the public domain. This law had been long neglected, so that numbers of the aristocracy now cultivated vast estates, the occupancy of which had perhaps been transmitted from father to son as an inheritance, or disposed of by purchase and sale; and although the republic still retained the fee simple in such lands, and could at any time legally turn out the occupants, it had long ceased to be thought probable that its rights would ever be exercised.

8. The law of Tibérius Grac' chus went even beyond strict legal justice, by proposing that buildings and improvements on the public lands should be paid for out of the public treasury. The impression has generally prevailed that the Agrarian laws proposed by Tiberius

a. A juger was nearly five-ninths of our acre.