From The Press. easily satisfy themselves who will take this Meteorological Essays. By François Arago. volume in hand. It opens with an elaborate With an Introduction by Baron Alexander essay on thunder and lightning, in which are Von Humboldt. Translated under the Su-collected with astonishing care those great facts perintendence of Colonel Sabine. London: connected with thunderstorms which from Longmans. their marvellous character have been recorded as well as those minor particulars and observaIT has for sometime been contemplated to tions which have been preserved by the care publish a complete edition of Arago's works of previous investigators. All these facts are in English, and we are glad to see such a com- skilfully marshalled under the sections to mencement made at last as must be eminently which they refer, so that the reader rather satisfactory to our scientific public. To this seems to form conclusions for himself than to first volume an introduction is contributed by have them dictated to him by Arago. This the distinguished Humboldt, who more, per- quality of his mind-never to be valued too haps, than any man living is able to give an highly-commonly gave to his deductions the adequate estimate of Arago's genius; and this force and exactitude of mathematical demonvolume of "Meteorological Essays," including stration, and preserved him in a very remarkthe author's researches on terrestrial magnet- able degree, not only from being led astray by ism, is edited by Colonel Sabine, justly cele- theoretical fancies, or by popular delusions, brated for his attainments in the latter branch but from any chance of his judgment being warped by favorite prepossessions. of science. Arago devoted himself to scientific pursuit The physical philosopher, blessed with this early. Humboldt's acquaintance with him truthful disposition-and no man can be emibegan in 1809. He was then twenty three, nent as a physicist apart from it has a great and had lately returned from the cost of Africa advantage over the moral philosopher, however having been for some time previously a pris-free he may be from prejudice, and determinoner in a Spanish citadel, at the conclusion of ed to seek truth for its own sake alone. The important trigonometrical operations for con- physicist is surrounded with facts-it is with necting the Balearic islands with the continent. them he deals, and from them he reasons. In the same year, 1809, he was elected a mem- Their significance may sometimes be obscure, ber of the French Academy of Sciences, and but they are to be trusted as far as they gofor upwards of forty years continued his His language is always real: it represents labors in celestial and terrestrial physics, with actual things which every one can recognize, a degree of ardor and success rarely paralleled. and hence there can be no dispute as to Humboldt has chronicled his chief labors, but words. The physical investigator is only in has hardly done justice to that quality of his danger when, presuming-as he easily may, genius which is sure to meet with peculiar appreciation in this country. and as geologists in our day often have done -too much on analogy, he carries his concluArago was indefatigable in collecting facts, sions further than the actual facts will warrant. and in making experiments by which he might But from any danger of this kind mathemati multiply observations. His facts, if they did cal minds like that of Arago are effectually not uniformly precede his theories, yet always preserved by their rigorous adherence to what formed their support and constituted the is known and determined. It is otherwise with groundwork from which he argued. In this the moral or metaphysical philosopher. Dealrespect his practice was the opposite of that ing with the consciousness which is in itself tendency of the French mind to overlook facts impalpable, he is liable to error at every step. in its excessive love of system. The fabled His language is arbitrary. In reasoning, he reply of the Frenchman to one who urged that cannot force his opponents, or even his readers, facts did not support his theory-"Tant pis to attach that meaning to words which he pour les faits "-must greatly lose its point attaches to them himself. Hence interminable after the scrupulous regard paid to facts by arguments and indefinite conclusions. There Arago throughout his whole career. Apart can be no dispute as to the meaning of terms from his original views, his works would be used by physicists as air and water, iron and eminently valuable merely as the best collec- coal-but who is to determine the meaning tions of facts extant on the particular subjects which is to be attached to the elemental terms on which he wrote. Hence his papers are of metaphysicians-as consciousness and mind, more than essays-they are scientific histories thought and will? Metaphysics will never showing the solid basis on which conclusions entitle to rank as a science until its professors rest, and distinguished as much by their copi- pay more attention to facts and less to abstract ous knowledge the fruit of years of research reasoning. and study-as by their profound reflection and luminous and logical reasoning. Of this peculiarity of Arago's genius all may It is true indeed that the theories of physicists often precede those observations and experiments by which they are demonstrated. any part of her clothes. It was even said that stools were overturned by means of the simple contact of a silk thread. No appreciable effect of this kind was witnessed by the Commission. it is said that under the influence of this young In the accounts communicated to the Academy person's arm, a magnetized needle first vibrated rapidly, and then came to rest at a considerable distance from the magnetic meridian. In the presence of the Commission, a delicately suspended magnetic needle did not experience under these circumstances any displacement, either permanent or momentary. M. Tanchon thought that Mademoiselle Cottin possessed the faculty of distinguishing the north from the south pole of a magnet, by simply touching the two poles with her fingers. To take a familiar instance, suggested by this volume: Franklin had conjectured rightly the nature of lightning before, with his beautiful experiment of the kite, he drew sparks from the clouds, yet it was nevertheless the observation of facts in the first instance which suggested his theory to him, as it was the observation of facts which led Newton to the discovery of gravitation, and Harvey to the theory of the circulation of the blood. In these and in similar cases genius does, no doubt, take a leap. The highest reasoning and the highest imaginative powers are sometimes allied; and as we find that an excited and fervid audience will anticipate the conclusion of an orator's sentence, and, apprehending his idea before it has found appropriate expression, will drown The Commission assured themselves, by varied the conclusion of his period in applause-so a and numerous experiments, that this young girl great mind, expanding by facts being revealed does not possess the supposed faculty of distin to it in a blaze of light, will leap to a conclu-guishing the poles of a magnet by the touch. sion before all the links in the chain of evi- The Commission will not pursue further the dence are complete. Such jumps partake of enumeration of failures; its members content the nature of imagination; but the intellect of themselves with declaring, in conclusion, that the great physicists is too calm to repose in these only one of the announced facts which was conclusions without greater certainty; and realized in their presence, was that of the sudden and violent movements in chairs in which the nothing is more remarkable in the history of science than the patience with which the to the manner in which these movements were young girl sat. Serious suspicions had arisen as authors of great discoveries have spent years produced, and the Commission determined to in working them out, and in giving to them subject them to an attentive examination. The a complete demonstration. Commissioners announced, without disguise, that But, to judge rightly Arago's genius, it their examination would be directed to discover seems to have been wanting in that imagina- what share certain skilful and concealed mantive faculty which we have endeavored to in- oeuvres by the hands and feet might have had in dicate. His name is not connected with any it was declared that the young girl had lost her the effect witnessed by them. From this moment great original discovery. order of mind which advanced by leaps, but attracting and repelling faculties, and that whenever they should re-appear we should be apprised. steadily, link by link. He was, as it seems to Many days have since elapsed, and the Commisus, more remarkable for power of classification sion has received no such intimation. We know and analysis than for faculty of origination. however, that Mademoiselle Angelique Cottin is There may be exceptions to this rule in the still daily presented in drawing-rooms, where she course of his long and arduous labors; we repeats her experiments. speak of the general character of his genius only, which was better fitted for carrying out We quote this passage not only as an inand perfecting theories than for suggesting stance of Arago's judicial capacity in scienthem. The mathematical and reasoning mind tific matters, but because it suggests a mode As most conspicuous in his works, his inventive in which some of our scientific societies might power being shown chiefly in the subordinate render themselves extremely useful. It is capacity of devising means to illustrate princi- their part to examine novel phenomena, to ples and extend their application. His facul- determine what is real, to expose imposture, ties were often exercised in a purely judicial and to dispel popular delusion. But, unfortu manner, but at the same time with admirable nately, that body which would be best fitted effect. His report on the case of a girl who it was asserted possessed extraordinary magnetic powers is a good example of his style of dealing with those pretended phenomena which from time to time excite a stir in society The Academy named a commission, with M. Arago at its head, to inquire into her case, and the following was his report: His was not an It was affirmed that Mademoiselle Cottin ex for the exercise of such functions in England, the Royal Society, has degenerated from its original purpose, and become little better than a corporation for conferring a style which once was honorary as denoting real eminence in science and literature, but which is fast ceasing to be thought so, since it is now to be secured by connection, and purchased by money. In the essay on thunder and lightning, the ercised a very intense, repelling action on bodies general reader will readily recognize the of all kinds, the moment they were touched by justice of the praise we have given to M Arago for his diligence in collecting facts.- On the 12th of April, 1781, Messrs. d'Aussac, spot. perished. In June 1826, near Worcester, a mare led by a boy was killed by lightning; the boy was unhurt. In June 1810, Mr. Cowens was in a room with his dog by his side, when lightning entered the room; the dog only was killed, Mr. Cowens barely felt the shock. Yellow amber, when rubbed strongly, attracts light bodies, such as down or light feathers, straws, and sawdust. Theophrastus among the Greeks, and Pliny among the Romans, had remarked this property, but without appearing to attach to it more importance than they would have done to any mere accident of form or color. They had no idea that they had thus actually On the 11th of July, 1819, as already related, touched the first link in a long chain of discove-lightning killed nine persons out of the congregaries. They failed to recognize the importance tion assembled at Divine service in the Church of an observation from which the moderns have at Chateau-Neuf-les-Moutiers; but it was not drawn a whole world of facts, as cúrious by their added that several dogs which were in the church singular character, as they are important in the were all killed without exception. These aniresults which have been deduced from them.-mals were all found dead in the attitudes in They have been called electric phenomena, from which they were before the stroke. the word electron, by which the Grecks designated amber. In one of his eloquent books, Mr. Ruskin On the attractive power of metals, it is re-sion of the Divine Power communicated to the has a striking passage on the sublime impres marked: Very numerous examples have proved that persons are never struck by lightning without its attacking more particularly portions of metal worn by them. It may, then, be admitted that the danger of being struck is sensibly increased by metals attached to the person. Every one will be ready to admit this, where the metallic masses are at all considerable; I may mention that on the 21st of July, 1819, lightning fell on the prison of Biberach, in Swabia; and that, in the great hall, amidst twenty prisoners, the one struck was the condemned chief of a band of robbers, who was chained by the waist. In some instances lightning has entirely consumed metals with which it came in contact: The following fact, reported by Constantini in 1749, is still more directly to the purpose. mind of men by storms with comparatively little fatal consequence. This thought may be illustrated by M. Arago's researches. It is astonishing that so little damage should be done considering the amount of electric matter discharged by the clouds during a thunderstorm. By experiments made on the Valentino Palace at Turin, it appears that the roof of this building alone, by means of its various conductors, took from the clouds each hour as much lightning matter as would suffice to kill three thousand persons. One of the most important chapters in the volume is that on the efficacy of lightning conductors. The remarkable exemption of the Temple at Jerusalem from damage by lightning is curiously explained : We do not learn, either from the Bible or from Josephus, that the Temple at Jerusalem was ever struck by lightning during an interval of more than a thousand years-from the time of ation it was completely exposed to the very freSolomon to the year 70,-although from its situquent and violent thunderstorms of Palestine. A lady was putting out her hand to close a window during a thunderstorm; the lightning darted, and the gold bracelet which she wore disappeared altogether, so that no vestige of it was found. She herself received only some very slight hurts. Without these preliminary remarks, my read-Remembering the care with which ancient nations ers might have been surprised at my introducing of injury was done, how often, for example, the recorded strokes of lightning by which any degree here the explanation given by the celebrated Roman Annals mention the Capitol and other traveller Brydone, of an accident which happened public buildings being struck by lightning,-it to a lady of his acquaintance, Mrs. Douglas. She was looking out of her window during a appears natural to infer from this silence, with thunderstorm, when a flash of lightning reduced her bonnet to ashes, without doing any other injury whatsoever. Mr. Brydone considered that the lightning had been attracted by the thin metalic wire supporting the front of the bonnet. Some curious cases are mentioned from which it seems probable that men resist the effects of lightning better than horses and dogs: the Orientalist Michaelis, that the Temple did not receive any severe stroke of lightning in the course of ten centuries. The probability of the justness of this inference is much strengthened by the circumstance that the Temple, being overlaid internally and externally with wood, would certainly have caught fire if struck by a violent thunderbolt. Supposing the fact to be thus well established, we have next, with Michaelis and Lichtenberg, to seek a cause, and we find a very simple one. By a fortuitous circumstance the Temple was determining the duration of the electric spark, armed with lightning-conductors quite similar to to show how brief is the duration of a lightthose which we now employ, and which we owe ning flash, is an example of that adaptative to Franklin's discovery. The roof, constructed in what we now call the quality of his mind which we have indicated Italian manner, and covered with boards of cedar above. The result is shortly stated:having a thick coating of gold, was garnished from end to end with long, pointed, and gilt-iron which this experiment would authorize when we We shall be keeping far within the conclusion or steel lances, which Josephus said were intended to prevent birds from resting on the roof and brilliant and extensive flashes of lightning of the content ourselves with saying that the most soiling it. The walls also were overlaid through first and second class, even those which appear out their extent with wood thickly gilt. Lastly, to embrace the whole extent of the visible horizon there were in the courts of the Temple cisterns have not a duration equal to the thousandth part of into which the rain from the roof was conducted a second of time. by metallic pipes. We have here both the lightning-rods and a supply of means of conduction so abundant, that Litchenberg is quite right in saying that many of our present apparatuses are far from offering in their construction so satisfac tory a combination of circumstances. The conclusion at which I arrive is, that the long immunity enjoyed by the Temple of Jerusalem presents the most manifest proof of the efficacy of lightning-conductors. Numerous details are given to show the efficacy of ordinary lightning-conductors in preserving buildings from injury during storms. The conductors should be pointed, as the electric fluid is thus more easily attracted. For the means by which this result is arrived at, without the possibility of error, we must refer to the volume itself. The ninth chapter -pages 41 to 48-is one of the most lucid and pleasing descriptions of a scientific experiment we ever met with. Mr. Wheatstone has, however, gone much farther, and demonstrated that the electric spark of our machines does not last the millionth part of a second. Arago's reputation is firmly fixed in England, but his works are, with some exceptions, very little known, though eminently deserving from their copious matter and clear style, of extensive popularity. The series could not The whole phenomena of thunderstorms are have opened with a more attractive volume, so copiously treated by the author, and so nor have we anything but praise to bestow on fully illustrated by instances, that the essay is the style in which it is presented to us. not only instructive in a high degree, but ex- complete edition of the works of Arago will tremely amusing. Arago's application of Mr. be a most welcome contribution to our scienWheatstone's ingenious rotatory apparatus for tific literature. The THE HUNDRED BOSTON ORATORS: appionted a democrat in principle." Rufus Choate, famous by the Municipal Authorities and other Public Bod- for always driving a substantive and six," is ies, from 1770 to 1852, comprising Historical Glean- reported when he "rolled up those tremendous ings. By J. S. Loring. (Boston, Jewett; London, climaxes, raised his commanding form upon his Trabner & Co.)-These speeches, interspersed toes, came down upon his heels like two pavier's with biographical sketches, are interesting as ex-rammers, and shook the whole firmament of the amples of American eloquence, and as commen- Common Council chamber like an earthquake." taries on the political and personal history of the "If the magnetic telegraph were affixed to his Union. The orations, as well as the criticisms, lips the words would leap upon the wires." His abound in hyperbole. Benjamin Harding, a mind "is as rapid as consists with sanity." His "carving-knife whetted on a brick-bat," is de-autograph "resembles the map of Ohio." By a picted as a man with "a livid face," a "deform-still bolder rhetorician we are told of "a roar ed finger, crooked like an audacious note of of laughter which, like a feu-de-joie, would run interrogation," who spoke so severely that had down the course of ages," by another, of a man Job been afflicted with a speech from him "he "the motion of whose pyrotechnic mind, was as would have bounced, like a parched pea, from the whiz of a hundred rockets." Specimens like his stabular mound, seized upon the adjacent these do not, of course, represent the qualities pitchfork, and scattered death and destruction of American oratory; but they are fair illustraaround him." He accused his antagonist of tions of its faults. Its excellencies are many coming "from a country where the people could and striking; but before a speaker rises into elosee a dollar with the naked eye as far as through quence he must forget the use of this turgid lana telescope." Hillard's Boston philippic is said guage, which contrasted with it, is like the froth to have contained "passages of the highest elo- in a pot compared with the foam of the ocean.quence, couched in language of a Tyrian dye." Athenæum. David Henshaw was "a Hercules in intellect and From The Athenæum. The Benefit of Christ's Death, probably written by Aonio Paleario. Reprinted in Fac-simile from Lathe Italian Edition of 1548; together with a French Translation printed in 1551, from Copies in the Library of St. John's College, Cambridge. To which is added, an English Version made in 55 1548, by Edward Courtenay, Earl of Devonshire. 400Now first edited from a MS. preserved in the Sofa Library of the University of Cambridge, with Tag-an Introduction, by Churchill Babington, B.D. Cambridge, Deighton & Co.; London, Bell & Daldy. manners when Mary released him; but he can hardly have been the coarse profligate which some describe him to have been, for he taught himself Italian during his captivity; and when in bonds, in the year 1548, the second year of the reign of Edward the Sixth, he translated this work "into our wulgare tonge, as he says in his touching and manly dedication to the Duchess of Somerset, wife of the Protector. The language and sentiments are not those of the low ruffian which Miss Strickland-with her usual carelessness and ignorance-describes him. Nor were his pursuits those of a ruffian and a debauchee.-i Strype pourtrays him as very studious and A good supplementary chapter has yet to be well-learned. He understood mathematics well, added to the Curiosities of Literature; "-one he could paint excellently, he played absolutely that shall contrast the sentiments in anonymous well on musical instruments, he spake Spanish, and posthumous works with the practice of their French, and Italian accurately, and, which was authors. Examples would abound, from writers the crown of all, he was a man of great_piety, of very early times down to those of a very recent and placed the chief good in virtue." He was period. Of all anonymous publications, however, indeed more of the scholar than the soldier; and probably none in its day created so wide and rather ingloriously ran away from "the battle of startling a sensation as the one published in Charing Cross," whither he was sent to oppose Italy more than three centuries ago, and entitled the advance of Wyat. Whether he wished for "The Benefit of Christ's Death." It was widely Wyat's success, that he might marry Elizabeth, circulated and eagerly read. But a book, the since he had no chance to marry Mary, is a conclusions of which were like those of Luther, doubtful question,-rendered the more doubtful that men were saved by faith and an imputed by Wyat's confessions and retractations. righteousness, and that works were the mere evi- permission to travel, given to him by Mary, was dences of faith, very speedily attracted the atten- an honorable banishment; and he was welcomed tion of the authorities. In an incredible short at every Court, till death suddenly "cropped him space of time thousands of copies were destroyed. off at Padua." He died, not without suspicion The Italian version entirely disappeared; and of poison, as was natural; for there was not Mr. Macaulay, in his review of Ranke's History likely to be safety in Italy for a Catholic nobleof the Popes, declared that not only had there man who was said to have been affianced to such been, in Italy, an effectual suppression of religious an unsatisfactory Catholic as the Princess Elizaworks, which were once to be found in every beth, and who had translated an essay which was house, but that this one book in particular, 'Of pronounced to be highly anti-Catholic in septithe Benefit of the Death of Christ,' written in ment. The full details of the death of this the Tuscan, often reprinted, and eagerly read in twelfth and last Earl of Devonshire-of his every part of Italy, having been found by the family-are still wanting to historical literature. Inquisitors to contain the Lutheran doctrine of It is Courtenay's translation of the Italian verJustification by Faith alone, had been proscribed sion that is given in this volume; and it has the and, he adds, "it is now as hopelessly lost as merit of being rendered from the original, wherethe Second Decade of Livy." Mr. Macaulay as the English translation of 1573, republished wrote thus in 1840, at which time there had been eight years since, was made from a French copy. an Italian copy of the supposed lost work in the The literary life of the supposed author is soon library of St. John's College, Cambridge, for nearly a hundred years. It had been presented by Dr. Ferrari, "a tutor in the family of the Earl of Leicester." There was one other copy extant, in the possession of Herr Kopitar, the Plate Imperial librarian at Vienna. It is now in the library at Laybach. The told. Antonio della Paglia, or Aonio Paleario, was born, about the year 1500, at Veroli, in the Campagna of Rome. He became eminent, both as a cleric and scholar, and enjoyed congenial intercourse with men as learned and eminent as himself. In 1534, he removed from Rome to Sienna, "where he was made public teacher of This remarkable treatise has been translated Greek and Latin, and lecturer on philosophy and into many languages. Perhaps the most able belles lettres." His published epistolary corresof. the English translations is that by Edward pondence was extensive, but his merit was far Courtenay, Earl of Devonshire, himself a remark- above that of a clever letter-writer. Vossins Fable man. It was the fact of an Italian treatise described his Lucretian poem on "The Immoradvocating the doctrine of Justification by Faith tality of the Soul" as "a divine and immortal written by a Siennese Catholic of great learning, composition," and Morhoff pronounced his prose and translated by such a man as Courtenay, that Latin to be equal to anything in Cicero. It reminded us of the work composed by Leibnitz: must have been during his residence at Sienna from none of these individuals were such produc- that he secretly wrote and anonymously publishtions by any means to be expected. To speak ed his treatise on the benefits of Christ's death. first of Courtenay. He was that victim of Henry At the close of the year 1542, having fallen into the Eighth's enmity to his murdered father, who was kept prisoner in the Tower from his twelfth to his twenty-sixth year. He was unpolished in disgrace and danger because of his well-known leaning towards the principles of the Reformation, he delivered an oration before the senators |