for a list of the authors who have of late years asserted the Scandinavian exploits on the American continent; and after simply mentioning the names of Laing, Beauvois, Moosmüller, Forster, Riant, Kohl, Gravier, and of the secretaries of the London Geographical Society and of the Brazilian Historical Institute, Washington and Ferreira Lagos, we shall content ourselves with observing that the discovery of our continent by Leif Ericsson was duly proclaimed by two national monuments, namely, by the commemorative engraving issued at the celebration of the millenarian existence of Scandinavian Iceland in the year 1874,' and by the discoverer's memorial in the city of Boston.

3

We might, therefore, readily dismiss all further discussion, if we did not remember that the general attainments of our opponents, though these be small in numbers, entitle any opinion they may present to respectful consideration. It may not be out of place to make, with De Costa,' a short review of George Bancroft's objections, which are to be found on the one single page with which he dismisses the important period of the Scandinavian discoveries and settlements: "The story of the colonization of America," he writes, "rests on narratives, mythological in form and obscure in meaning, ancient, yet not contemporary. The chief document is an interpolation in the history of Sturleson, whose zealous curiosity could hardly have neglected the discovery of a continent. The geographical details are too vague to sustain a conjecture; the accounts of the mild weather and fertile soil are, on any modern hypothesis, fictitious or exaggerated; the description of the natives applies only to the Esquimaux, inhabitants Vol. i. pp. 5, 6.

1 Baumgartner, S. 147. Precolumbian Discovery of

America, p. 41, n. 1.

of hyperborean regions; the remark which should define the length of the shortest winter day has received interpretations adapted to every latitude from New York to Cape Farewell, and Vinland had been sought in all directions, from Greenland and the St. Lawrence to Africa."

As intimated before, there is not in the sagas the least indication of dishonesty or deceit on the part of their authors. In a simple, artless way they tell the stories of certain men's lives; and whenever they touch upon matters of general importance we find their statements borne out by other historical sources of acknowledged authority, as we shall presently observe. De Costa judiciously remarks1 that candid readers, who come to the subject with minds free from prejudice, will be powerfully impressed with the belief that they are reading authentic histories written by honest men. The location, features, fauna, and flora of the countries of which they speak are until this day indisputable evidences of their veracity.

Nor can it be pretended that the writers of all these numerous sagas, so widely different in their form and subject, had conspired to write concordant episodes suitable to an ancient history, from irrelevant data of modern vogages, with the only possible intention of appropriating to a branch of their race the glory of the latest discoverers of America; for, if such were the case, marks of unjust ambition would not be wanting in the plan, bearing, or style of the compositions. Yet, on the contrary, the artless authors do not even seem to be conscious of the historical importance of the facts which they tell, and give us plainly to understand that another nation, the Irish, had preceded them in America as

1 Discovery of America, p. 41.

well as in Iceland itself. The material of the manuscript codices, their size and kind of writing, the drawing and painting of their initials and illuminations, besides their ancient mode of expression, all refer to the venerable age which they claim.1

Bancroft discards the sagas because they are not contemporary with the facts narrated. But where is the historical work written de visu, without any reference to authorities? Such a history would be suspicious for more than one reason. Although part of the events related above are taken from regular annals composed of successive entries, made as notable facts took place; we grant that America's discovery and first colonization by the Northmen were not recorded in writing at once; yet their history was, for the space of one or two generations, faithfully preserved by the Icelandic professional saga-men or story-tellers, whose memory was trained to a surprising degree for the purpose of reciting narratives of the past on all important or public occasions. As soon as Christianity had introduced more learning and writing, that is, a few years after Leif the Fortunate set foot on our continent,-the employment of the saga-men was on the wane, the oral versions of national history and traditions were gathered up by zealous students, like Ari hinn Frode, Saemund, and others, and confided to the more lasting custody of the parchments; and in the beginning of the twelfth century the story-teller found his honorable and lucrative occupation gone. If, therefore, the sagas are not strictly contemporary with the establishment of the Vinland colonies, they are, at least, with their continuation and with the sailing from Greenland to our coasts before Columbus's discovery.

1 Moosmüller, S. 5.

The manuscript in which we have versions of all the sagas relating to America is found in the celebrated Codex Flatœensis, which was commenced in the year 1387 and finished in 1395.' This collection, made with great care and executed in the highest style of art by the two priests John Thordson and Magnus Thorhallson, is now open to our inspection in the royal library at Copenhagen, where, after being carefully guarded in the monastery of Flatoe, it was deposited, together with a large quantity of other ancient manuscripts which, in the absence of the former, would suffice to establish the fact of the colonization and evangelization of America by the Northmen. The principal among these codices are:

Codex Legati Arna-Magnæani, No. 544, in 4to; containing the history of Thorfinn Karlsefne.

Codex Arna-Magnæanus, No. 557, in 4to; relating also Thorfinn's saga.

Fragment No. 445, b, in 4to; telling of the voyage of Gudleif Gudlaughson.

Codex Arna-Magnæanus, No. 61, in Fo.; in which we find the history of Olaf Tryggvason and Vinland mentioned.

Codex regius Annalium; which relates the voyage of Bishop Eric and of the priests Adalbrand and Thorvald.

Codex No. 415, of Annals till A.D. 1313; probably an original manuscript.

Skalholts Annall hinn forni, No. 420, c., great in 4to or small in Fo.; with entries till A.D. 1356.

Codex Arna-Magnæanus, No. 420; containing the voyage of Bishop Eric to Vinland.

Codex No. 180, b., in Fo.; telling of the mission of Landa Rolf to Iceland.

Codex No. 736; containing geographical notices of Helluland, Markland, and Vinland.

Codex Arna-Magnæanus, No. 192; giving also notices on the location of Greenland and of other American countries."

1 De Costa, Precolumbian Dis- 2 Cf. Moosmüller, S. 5-8. covery, p. 40; Moosmüller, S. 5.

Objections are also made against the integrity of the Icelandic sagas by a few who, admitting their preColumbian origin, imagine that they have been tampered with and interpolated. But this supposition necessarily implies not only the insertion of several words and lines into not less than eighteen sagas,-a fraud which the most critical scrutinies have failed to detect, -but also of several entire narratives of which the American rediscovery and colonization form the framework and substance.

The statement of Bancroft that "the chief document," upon which the Scandinavian claims are based, "is an interpolation in the history of Sturleson" is incorrect and misleading. The truth is, that Peringskjöld, in his late edition of Sturluson's great work, has inserted one version, though not the principal version, of a saga relating to America; but this interpolation cannot have any bearing whatever upon the authority of the document as found in the Codex Flatœensis, from which it was literally copied.' He is more plausible when he adds that "Sturleson could hardly have neglected to mention the discovery of a continent;" but Sturluson's predecessors had never spoken of the discovery of a continent;" the southwestern countries visited by the ancient Icelanders and Greenlanders were but very prosaical coasts, with no further interest than that of profitable trade. Sturluson may, therefore, well have neglected a discovery of a land that was, moreover, known to the Icelanders under the name of Hvítramánnaland long before their kinsman, Leif Ericsson, took a sight of its shores. Nor did the object of Sturluson's labors prompt him to speak of America while he was writing the history of the kings

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1 De Costa, Precolumbian Discovery of America, p. 41, n.