of England, which eventually they conquered altogether, after having subjugated the sunniest provinces of Italy.1 Belgium was the only European land in which they met with serious opposition, for, after having ravaged on several occasions the banks of the Scheld, they were in the year 864 so severely punished by Baldwin the Iron, Marquis of Flanders, that, for a long time they ventured no more to penetrate into a country which was finally forbidden them forever at the battle of Louvain in 891.2 On water they were invincible, and they boldly sailed to hold their orgies on every shore where a vessel had landed before them, even to Greece, to Berbera, and to Palestine.3 No wonder, therefore, if we found them cruising between the northern islands in the very neighborhood of their native country. It is rather a singular fact that they destroyed the Irish settlements in Iceland at no earlier period than they did. This, however, may be accounted for by the policy of the Papas, who likely hid from them, as best and as long as they could, the existence of their insular colonies. However this may be, the first landings of the Scandinavians on the Icelandic shores, as we have remarked already, have been extolled by their patriotic sagas with the title of discoveries, and accepted as such by most subsequent writers." The learned generally award the honor of the Scandinavian discovery of Iceland to a Norwegian called 1 Rohrbacher, t. xii. p. 65 ; t. xiii. p. 415. 'P. De Roo, bl. 201, 216; Van Speybrouck, bl. 5. 3 Moosmüller, S. 10; von Humboldt, Examen, t. ii. p. 86; Gravier, p. 26. 4 Sabin, vi. no. 22, 854, gives, as published at Godthaab, 1859-61, in three volumes, the Eskimo text of Greenland Folk-Lore, collected and edited by natives of Greenland, and showing, as the notice says, the traditions of the first descent of the Northmen, in the eighth century. 5 Supra, p. 62. Naddodr or Nadr, and often Naddod; and they commonly admit the year 860,1 while some prefer the year following, as the date of the event. Naddod, chosen as captain of a band of sea-rovers, set sail for the Faroe Islands; but their craft was driven by violent winds far away to the Northwest, where they descried a great country. After landing on its eastern shore, they climbed a high mountain, saw snow in every direction, but could discover no traces of human habitation. Naddod left the land, giving it the name of "Snialand" or Land of Snow, and in the autumn. arrived at his destination on the Faroes.2 Some authors, and particularly those best versed in Icelandic lore, Finn Magnussen and Charles Rafn, contend that the first of the Northmen to set foot on Iceland's soil, in the year 863, was a Dane of Swedish origin named Gardhar or Gardar, and that the arrival of Naddod could not be assigned to an earlier date than 864.3 In this view they are sustained by ancient statements which either positively assert that Gardar was the first discoverer of the island, or do not even mention the name of Naddod.* Gardar Svafarson is indebted for his renown to the kind services of a storm that drove him out of his way to the shores of the northern island. He found a secure haven near its easternmost headland, ascertained its 1 Letronne, p. 139; Langebek, t. ii. p. 32; von Humboldt, Examen, t. ii. p. 92; Maltebrun, History of Geography; Mallet, p. 187, and Gravier, p. 19, ref. to Landnámabók, pp. 2, 5, and saga of Olaf Tryggvason, Kap. cxiii. S. 261. 2 Aa. iidem, ibid.; Gaffarel, Découv., t. i. p. 300; Maurer, Island bis zum Untergange des Freistaats, p. 2. 3 An art. of Rafn: The Discovery insular character by circumnavigation, erected booths for himself and his crew at a place afterwards called "Husavik" or Bay of the Houses, and passed the winter there. The following spring he returned from the island, to which he gave the name of " Gardharsholm," Gardar's Island, and his favorable report greatly excited the spirit of adventure among the Northmen.1 The ancient" Historia Norwegia" states that a certain Anba or Auba soon set out for Gardarsholm, but little is known of him.2 We are better informed in regard to another Icelandic expedition which started from Norway about the year 870. The great pirate, Floke-Rafna Vilgerdharson, accompanied by Herjolf, Thorolf, and a Swede by the name of Faxi, first directed his course to the Shetlands, then to the Faroes, and finally ventured into the open ocean to the northwest. He had taken with him three ravens. When he was fairly out at sea he let loose one of these birds, which, after rising to a considerable elevation, directed its flight to the land they had left. From this Floke very wisely concluded that it was nearer to him than any other. Onward Floke went. The second raven, after being some time on the wing, returned to the ship,-a sign that land was too distant to be descried. Floke, therefore, continued in the same direction, and shortly after let loose his last raven, which he followed in its flight, until he reached the eastern coast of Iceland. After a short exploring cruise, he entered Vatnsfiord and disembarked the provisions, the implements, and the cattle which he had taken along, with the intention of permanently settling in Gardar's good island. The fish which abounded in 1 Langebek, t. ii. p. 32; Maurer, S. 2; Cooley, Histoire Générale, p. 212; Mallet, p. 187; Gravier, p. 21. 2 Storm, p. 92. the firth supplied him and his men with plenty of food; but, having neglected to provide for hay, he lost all his animals during the winter. This misfortune fell heavy on him, and when he saw his dwelling buried in the snow, the bay blockaded with icebergs, and the spring of the following year tarrying late and chilly, he gave up all hope and courage and turned back from the country to which, in justice and disgust, he gave again its former name of Land of Ice or "Ísland." 1 Floke's companions, who had undergone no special losses, were better able to appreciate the pasturages, the fisheries, and the hunting-grounds of Iceland, and they gave their countrymen a description of it well calculated to make many people of sterile Norway long for a home in the distant land of plenty. Iceland was doubly desirable for those whose crimes had made their life unsafe in their native country and for those of the nobility who had already fallen the victims of Harold Haarfager's ambition, or were in danger of losing their wild independence at the hands of this powerful jarl. Among these was Ingulfr Arnarson or Ingolf, as proud an earl and as daring a pirate as ever lived in Norway, who had already sacrificed two men to his love for Helga, Ormis's daughter. His companion, Hiorleifr or Hiorleif,3 was another nobleman guilty of murders. They both, in company with several others, concluded to seek impunity and liberty in the far-off northern island; and, as a preparation, they fitted out one of their large ships, with which they sent out a 4 1 Langebek, t. ii. p. 32; Baumgartner, S. 113; Gravier, pp. 2123, ref. to Landnámabók, ch. ii., and saga of Olaf Tryggvason, Kap. cxv.; supra, p. 66. 2 Gravier, p. 23. Elsewhere called his father-inlaw. (Storm, p. 8.) * Storm, p. 92 few mariners to seek and explore the isle where Floke had sojourned. The crew passed the winter in Iceland and ascertained that the southern districts were better than the northern.1 In the mean time Ingolf married Helga, and Hiorleif kidnapped ten slaves and took a considerable booty on the coasts of Ireland.2 Ingolf's colony arrived in Iceland in the year 874.3 He settled at first in a southeastern locality, but three years later he and his family commenced to build the present capital city, Reikiavik. Hiorleif was murdered shortly after his arrival by the Irish slaves whom he compelled to pull the plough while his ox was standing in the stable; but his friend Ingolf took ample revenge by putting every one of the slaves to a cruel death.* His fleet was followed, year after year, by many a vessel from the North- and Baltic Seas, and the Scandinavian colonies of Iceland were steadily on the increase. It was, however, the issue of the battle of Hafursfjord or Stavanger which gave the impulse for the sudden growth of the island's population. Harald the Comely Hair dealt, near Stavanger in the year 885, the fatal blow to his competitors of the Norwegian nobility, and these, rather than submit to a monarch, turned the remnants of their vessels either to southern parts of Europe or, in great numbers, to the hemisphere of republican liberty, to the northern island of America. Reusch remarks that at the end of the ninth century Iceland was well inhabited already, and in the year 1 Mallet, p. 187, asserts that Ingolf himself was the leader of this exploring excursion. 2 Gravier, p. 23, ref. to Landnámabók, ch. v. pp. 12, 13. Aa. passim. 4 Gravier, pp. 24, 25, ref. to Landnámabók, ch. iii., ix. pp. 10- |