1840.] BEGINNINGS OF THE OPIUM WAR-ITS MORAL ASPECTS. 445 9th of April," The fact was that this was an exportation-of-bullion question, an agricultural-interest-protection question." The Chinese authorities were at last brought into open collision with the resident British merchants. In consequence of an attempt to strangle a Chinese opium-smuggler in front of the factories at Canton, there was an affray between the Europeans and the Chinese. Captain Elliot, the Superintendent at Canton, issued a notice requiring all British-owned vessels trading in opium to leave the river within three days. But this measure did not conciliate the High Commissioner from the Imperial Court, Lin-Tsih-Sew, who in 1839 commanded all opium in British ships, whether in the Canton river or on the coast of China, to be given up. All the foreign residents being forbidden to leave China, Captain Elliot joined his countrymen in the Factories, which were surrounded by Chinese soldiers. More than twenty thousand chests of opium were delivered up and destroyed. War was now imminent. Captain Elliot applied for a naval force, and in October two English frigates were blockading Canton. These were attacked by Chinese war-junks, which were beaten off with great loss. In January, 1840, an Imperial edict directed all trade with Great Britain to cease for ever. "As Thus commenced what has been called the Opium War. Putting aside. the consideration of the treatment of this subject as a party question-one which so nearly involved the fall of the Ministry, that in a House of five hundred and thirty-three members, they had only a majority of nine upon Sir James Graham's motion-it is startling, after this lapse of time, to trace the very different views which its moral aspects presented. The combatants were fighting about the colour of a shield which showed its blackness on one side and its whiteness on the other. The representative of the British Government, it was argued by the supporters of the Ministry, had been treated in a manner contrary to all public law, and the whole body of English traders had been subjected to imprisonment and indignities in consequence of offences in which they had no participation. Exact reparation for these injuries, said Mr. Macaulay. In one of his despatches Captain Elliot described his arrival at the Factory in the moment of extreme danger. soon as he landed he was surrounded by his countrymen, all in an agony of distress and despair. The first thing which he did was to order the British flag to be brought from his boat and planted in the balcony. The sight immediately revived the hearts of those who had a minute before given themselves up for lost. It was natural that they should look up with hope and confidence to that victorious flag, for it reminded them that they belonged to a country unaccustomed to defeat, to submission, or to shame; to a country which had exacted such reparation for the wrongs of her children as had made the ears of all who heard of it to tingle; to a country which had made the Dey of Algiers humble himself to the dust before her insulted Consul; to a country which had avenged the victims of the Black Hole on the Field of Plassey; to a country which had not degenerated since the great Protector vowed that he would make the name of Englishman as much respected as ever had been the name of Roman citizen." "I am not compe * Hansard, vol. liii. col. 940.` 446 DEBATES IN PARLIAMENT-CHUSAN CAPTURED. [1840. tent," answered Mr. Gladstone," to judge how long this war may last, or how protracted may be its operations, but this I can say, that a war more unjust in its origin, a war more calculated in its progress to cover this country with permanent disgrace, I do not know, and I have not read of." He asked, with reference to the eloquent description of the British flag planted on the balcony at Canton, "How comes it to pass that the sight of that flag always raises the spirit of Englishmen? It is because it has always been associated with the cause of justice, with opposition to oppression, with respect for national rights, with honourable commercial enterprize; but now, under the auspices of the noble lord, that flag is hoisted to protect an infamous contraband traffic, and if it were never to be hoisted except as it is now hoisted on the coast of China, we should recoil from its sight with horror, and should never again feel our hearts thrill, as they now thrill, with emotion, when it floats proudly and magnificently on the breeze."* Such were the contrary views in 1840 of the nature of this war; such are the contrary views which still prevail amongst those who write upon this war. The China merchants of London, in a Memorial to lord Palmerston, expressed their opinion that unless the measures of the government were followed up with firmness and energy, the trade with China would no longer be conducted with security to life and property. This was the commercial point of view. The sentimental point of view is that, confident in our military power and the comparative ignorance of the Chinese in the arts of war, we forced upon them the contraband drug which the government would have kept out of the reach of the intemperate. The opponents of the Whig ministry in 1840 did not, however, deny the necessity of a hostile demonstration with respect to China. Sir Robert Peel said that, "after what had passed, British honour and the British name would be disgraced unless some measure were taken to procure reparation for the injuries and insults which had been committed on Again and again I say, do not enter into this war without a becoming spirit-a spirit becoming the name and character of England. Do not forget the peculiar character of the people with whom you have to deal, and so temper your measures that as little evil as possible may remain. Remember that the character of the people has lasted for many generations ; that it is the same now that was given to them by Pliny and many subsequent writers. It is your duty to vindicate the honour of England where vindication is necessary, and to demand reparation wherever reparation is due." + us. A small naval force having been left in the Canton river to maintain a blockade, the British fleet sailed northward along the coast of China. The first important operation of the war was the capture on the 5th of July, by the squadron, of the city of Ting-hai in Chusan. The Chusan islands, upon the possession of which the maritime intercourse of the eastern coast of China essentially depended, were captured after a slight resistance. Admiral Elliot arrived as plenipotentiary at Chusan on the day on which the city was taken, and he despatched to Ning-po a letter from lord Palmerston to be transmitted to the emperor of China at Pekin. The autho * Hansard, vol. liii. col. 818. 1841.] TREATY MADE AT CANTON REPUDIATED BY THE EMPEROR. 447 rities at Ning-po refused to receive or to forward the letters. A blockade was consequently declared of the east coast, from Ning-po to the mouth of the Kiang. Captain Elliot in August entered the Pei-ho, which flows past Pekin on the south. The letter of lord Palmerston was now forwarded, and on the 30th of August a conference was held between captain Elliot and the emperor's minister Keshen, who was subsequently appointed Imperial Commissioner, Lin having been deprived of his office. Admiral Elliot somewhat indiscreetly consented to transfer the negotiations for peace to Canton, thus neutralizing the effect that had been produced by the successes at Chusan, and by the approach of British vessels of war to the vicinity of Pekin. The admiral soon after resigned. A truce which had been announced by admiral Elliot was violated, in the midst of the negotiations, by an edict that all Englishmen and ships should be destroyed wherever they were met with near China. The forts Chuen-pe and Tae-cok-tow on the Canton river were now stormed and captured, and the Chinese squadron of war junks collected in Anson's Bay was destroyed. Negotiations were then resumed; and on the 20th of January, Captain Elliot issued a circular stating that a treaty had been agreed to by Keshen, the conditions of which were that Hong-Kong should be ceded to England; that six million dollars should be paid by the Chinese; that the trade should be opened within ten days; and that there should be direct official communication between the two countries on equal terms. Formal possession was taken of Hong-Kong, and Chusan was evacuatednot too soon-for the troops left there had been greatly reduced by the unhealthiness of the climate. Keshen proclaimed that the English barbarians were now obedient to order, and that all affairs were perfectly well settled. But, on the 11th of February an Imperial edict was received from Pekin by the Commissioner at Canton, disapproving and rejecting the conditions agreed to by him. The war was now resumed with increased vigour. On the 2nd of March general Gough,-who had entered the British army in 1794, had greatly distinguished himself in the Peninsular war, and in 1837 was in command of a division of the Indian army,-arrived in China to take the command of the British land forces. From the renewal of hostilities to the end of April there had been armistice upon armistice, during which the attempts of Captain Elliot to negotiate were repeatedly defeated by the intervention of the Imperial government. Keshen was degraded and deprived of his office for consenting to these suspensions of hostility, the Imperial edicts proclaiming, "it is difficult for heaven and earth to bear any longer with the English." General Gough saw that this temporizing policy would only prolong the war, and be more injurious to the Chinese themselves than its vigorous prosecution. He determined to attack Canton. It was resolved to make the principal points of debarkation of the British forces to the north-west of the city, while another column was to take possession of the Factories, which had been ceded to the Chinese. The attack upon the Factories was very soon successful. The point chosen for debarkation on the north-west was about five miles by the river line above the Factories. The troops were landed on the 23rd, and early on the morning of the 24th proceeded to the attack. General Gough describes the heights to the north of Canton. They were crowned by four strong forts, and the city walls ran over their southern extremity. The intervening ground between the point of 448 CANTON ATTACKED-ARRIVAL OF SIR H. POTTINGER. [1841. landing and the forts was undulated, and intersected by hollows under wet paddy cultivation. The walls of Canton, of brick on a foundation of red sandstone, were about twenty feet thick, and varied in height from twentyfive to forty feet. At this time there were twenty thousand Tartar troops, famous for their courage and daring, garrisoning the city. On the 24th the two western forts were captured with comparatively small loss, and "in little more than half an hour after the order to advance was given, the British troops looked down on Canton within a hundred paces of its walls."* It was intended next day to assault the city itself, but the attack was prevented by a flag of truce being hoisted on the walls. Captain Elliot wrote to the general, requesting him to suspend hostilities, as he was employed in a settlement of the difficulties. The terms were little different to those which had been formerly agreed to, and to which the Chinese government had refused its assent. General Gough observed upon this termination of the conflict: "Whatever might be my sentiments, my duty was to acquiesce; the attack, which was to have commenced in forty-five minutes, was countermanded, and the feelings of the Chinese were spared. Of the policy of this measure I do not consider myself a competent judge; but I say 'feelings,' as I would have been responsible that Canton should be equally spared, with the exception of its defences, and that not a soldier should have entered the town farther than the fortified heights within its walls." The terror induced by the operations of the fleet and army extorted from the authorities of Canton the payment of six million dollars as a ransom for the city. Although trade was resumed in Canton, peace was still distant. The Imperial edicts still breathed vengeance against the "barbarians;" the British government disapproved the arrangements of captain Elliot. Sir Henry Pottinger, who arrived as Plenipotentiary on the 10th of August, took the chief direction of the affairs which had so long been in the hands of the Superintendent. He immediately published a copy of his credentials, authorising and empowering him "to negotiate and conclude with the minister vested with similar power and authority on the part of the emperor of China, any treaty or agreement for the arrangement of the differences now subsisting between Great Britain and China." He also issued a notification, in which, after stating his anxiety to promote the prosperity of all her majesty's subjects and other foreigners, he went on to say that "it was his first duty distinctly to intimate for general and individual information, that it was his intention to devote his undivided energies and thoughts to the primary object of securing a speedy and satisfactory close of the war; and that he therefore could allow no consideration connected with mercantile pursuits and other interests to interfere with the strong measures which he might find it necessary to authorize and adopt towards the government and subjects of China, with a view to compelling an honourable and lasting peace." To the end of 1841 there were various successes achieved by the land and naval forces, which gave the British possession of many large fortified towns, amongst which were Amoy, Ting-hai, Chin-hai, Ning-po, and Shang-hai. The Chinese were nevertheless persevering in their resistance, and in most cases evinced a bravery which showed how mistaken were the views which regarded General Gough's Despatch, "Annual Register," 1841, p. 282. 1 1842.] CAPTURE OF CHIN-KIANG-FOO-TREATY OF NANKING. * 449 the subjection of this extraordinary people as an easy task. To the end of June these successes had produced no overtures from the Imperial government evincing a real desire for a pacification. The British fleet on the 13th of June entered the great river Kiang, and on the 6th of July advanced up the river, and cut off its communication with the Grand Canal, by which Nanking, the ancient capital of China, was supplied with grain. The point where the river intersects the canal is the city of Chin-Kiang-foo. "This city, with its walls in excellent repair, stands within little more than half a mile from the river; the northern and the eastern faces upon a range of steep hills; the west and southern faces on low ground, with the Imperial Canal serving in some measure as a wet ditch to these faces. To the westward the suburb through which the canal passes extends to the river and terminates under a precipitous hill." On the morning of the 21st the city was stormed by the British, in three brigades. The resistance of the Tartar troops was most desperate. Our troops fought under a burning sun, whose overpowering heat caused some to fall dead. The obstinate defence of the place prevented its being taken till six o'clock in the evening. When the streets were entered, the houses were found almost deserted. They were filled with ghastly corpses, many of the Tartar soldiers having destroyed their families, and then committed suicide. The city, from the number of the dead, had become uninhabitable. On the 9th of August the British fleet, proceeding up the river, had arrived before Nanking. General Gough determined to storm this fortified city, containing half a million of inhabitants. The debarkation was suspended, upon a communication from sir Henry Pottinger that he was negotiating with high officers of the empire who had now the direct authority of the emperor to treat for peace. The treaty was finally signed before Nanking on board the Cornwallis on the 29th of August, by sir Henry Pottinger on the part of Great Britain, and by Ke-ying, Elepoo, and Neu-Kien, on the part of the emperor of China. Its most important provisions were as follows: Lasting peace and friendship were to be maintained between the two empires; China was to pay to Great Britain twentyone millions of dollars within four years; the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochoo-foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hai, were to be thrown open to British merchants, consular officers were to be allowed to reside at these ports, and just tariffs, as well as inland transit duties, established and published; HongKong island to be ceded in perpetuity to Great Britain; all British subjects, whether natives of Europe or of India, then in confinement in any part of the Chinese empire, to be unconditionally released; an amnesty to be published by the emperor to all Chinese subjects on account of their having held service under the British government or its officers; correspondence between the officers of the two governments to be conducted on terms of perfect equality. On receipt of the emperor's assent to the treaty, and of the first six million dollars of the indemnity, the British forces were to retire from Nanking and the Grand Canal, and the military posts at Chin-hai were to be withdrawn; but the islands of Chusan and Ku-lang-su were to be held till the whole amount of the indemnity was paid, and the ports opened. On the 8th of September the emperor signified his assent to the treaty; which, * "Annual Register," 1842, p. 273. VOL. VIII. G G |