was thirty years old he owned some five thousand acres of land and fifty slaves. His chief source of income was his law practice. Hardship had no share in his education. He was an exceedingly patriotic man, laboriously serving his country for nearly half a century. He entered the Virginia Assembly in 1769, and became a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1775. He was governor of Virginia for two years (1779-1780); was minister to France from 1784 to 1789; was Secretary of State in Washington's Cabinet for four years (1790-1793); and was Vice-President of the United States from 1797 until his election to the Presidency in 1801.

Professor West in his American History and Government says of Jefferson: "From 1801 to 1809 American history is sometimes called 'the biography of Thomas Jefferson.' The nation believed in him; Congress swayed to his wishes. He was an intellectual aristocrat, but the prophet of democracy; a theorist of the wildest speculations, but an astute practical politician upon all immediate problems; yet he was a shy man, averse to public speaking or public appearances, but a popular dictator." Jefferson selected the epitaph for his resting place: "Author of the Declaration of Independence, of the statute of Virginia for Religious freedom, and Father of the University of Virginia.' One of Jefferson's biographers said: "If America is right, Thomas Jefferson was right."

It should be remembered that the idea of independence was a growth. History shows that the thought of actual independence from England was denounced by Continental Congresses, by provincial conventions, and by leading statesmen, among them Washington (October, 1774, May and June, 1775); Franklin (March, 1775) ; Jefferson (September, 1775); John Jay (after September, 1775). In February, 1776, the South Carolina convention protested and condemned expressions of independence from Gadsden. American chaplains prayed for George III for months after Bunker Hill, and as late as March, 1776, Maryland instructed her delegates not to consent to any

proposal of independence. There can be no question about the honesty of these expressions. But Americans were ready to declare for independence and to fight for it when they were finally convinced that debate and petition could not change the stubborn attitude of King George III toward the rights of the colonists. The causes for the Revolution and the separation from England are easily seen by reading the Declaration itself, which is preserved for us at Washington, D. C. The fifty-six members of the Congress who signed it were, under English law, traitors and subject to the fate of traitors. Ever since its adoption it has been an exceedingly great force in advancing democracy throughout the world. Every American should read it carefully and ponder its significance.

THE NATURE OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION (Page 9)

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Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804) was born in the West Indies and was educated at King's College (now Columbia University), New York City. When the Revolution broke out he joined the army, was appointed a captain of artillery, and did noteworthy and effective work. He was a famous lawyer and was in the Congress of the Confederation for a time (1782-1783). Washington appointed him Secretary of the Treasury in 1789. His genius for finance saved the United States from ruin. He and Jefferson were bitter political opponents. 'Except for Hamilton,' says West, "there would hardly have been a Nation for Jefferson to Americanize." Aaron Burr, while Vice-President of the United States, was a candidate for governor of New York. He was defeated in the election, and he laid his defeat to Hamilton, his personal and political enemy. Burr forced a duel on Hamilton and fatally shot him at Weehawken, New Jersey, July 11, 1804. The next day Hamilton died. He was fortyseven years old.

When the Federal Constitution was up for ratification or rejection by New York state, a vote against it by New

York, or Massachusetts, or Virginia would in all probability have caused its rejection as the Constitution of our country. New York's ratification of it was due almost wholly to Hamilton. West in his American History and Government says: "Never did his [Hamilton's] splendid intellect render his country nobler service. Day by day against almost hopeless odds, and for a time almost alone in debate, by powerful logic and gentle persuasion, he beat down and wore away the two-thirds majority against the Constitution, until at last the greater leaders of the opposition came frankly to his side." New York voted for the Constitution 30 to 27. But two votes in its convention of fifty-seven would have defeated it. Hamilton himself said that four-sevenths of the population of New York state was opposed to the Union. Hamilton was by no means satisfied with the Constitution, but he championed it because his mind was of a practical nature, because he had a natural horror of schism. Much of his patriotic work in getting New York to adopt the Constitution was done through the Federalist, of which he was joint-author. This is a collection of essays that appeared in New York newspapers week after week and later were published in book form. It is one of the greatest books of the world, and one of the wisest and best discussions of the Constitution.

WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS (Page 21)

George Washington (1732-1799) had charge of a small force of soldiers in Pontiac's War (1763), when he was about thirty years old. He was a member of the First Continental Congress, which met at Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. The Second Continental Congress chose Washington commander-in-chief of the Continental forces, June 15, 1775. These forces were to defend American liberty, then known as the "immemorial rights of Englishmen." He was "the one indispensable man of the Revolution." And we are told that he and the French alliance (1778) saved the Revolution. Washington was a master of detail and learned from his own defeats. He

usually kept himself under control, was long-suffering and patient, though he possessed a hot and impetuous temper. He was inaugurated in Federal Hall, Wall Street, New York City, April 30, 1789. Washington liked ceremony and was aristocratic in his inclinations. He believed in a liberal interpretation of the Constitution. That is, he believed that the Congress had "implied power" to carry out any of the powers granted to the Congress by the Constitution. While riding over his farm at Mount Vernon, Va., December 12, 1799, he was overtaken by showers of rain and sleet. The next day he wrote out his will and handed it to his wife. He knew he was not to live long, and he is reported to have said to his old friend and physician, Dr. Craik: "I die hard, but I am not afraid to go." To his secretary, Mr. Lear, he gave directions about his funeral. On Saturday night, December 14, 1799, between ten and eleven o'clock, he died. His last words were: "It is well."

Washington's celebrated Farewell Address was given September 17, 1796. It is largely devoted to the consideration of (1) the unity of government; (2) dangers to the Union; (3) the harmfulness of unrestrained party spirit; (4) the elements of National strength and security, and (5) the treatment of foreign nations. In it he advised his countrymen to keep out of "permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world. Jefferson is the one who advised against "entangling alliances."

This Address will not be fully understood unless the political beliefs and tendencies from 1792 to 1800 are considered. In any true sense there were no political parties in the early years of Washington's administration, though during the period of the adoption of the Constitution there were the Federalists (strongly in favor of the Constitution) and the anti-Federalists. Within a few months after its adoption party lines vanished. But the strongly contrasted views of Hamilton and Jefferson (both of whom were in Washington's "Cabinet") caused men to be for or against government policies. Men grouped themselves, on the one hand, into those who

very

believed in an aristocratic form of government, commercial interests, a strong central government, and English sympathies, and on the other hand, into those who believed in a democratic form of government, agricultural interests, weak central government, and French sympathies. Hamilton was a recognized leader of the first group and Jefferson of the second group. About 1792 (Washington was unanimously reëlected in 1793) these opposing views led to the formation of new political parties the new Federalist (that of Hamilton), and the Republican (that of Jefferson) unfortunately largely sectional, the North being mainly Federalist, and the South decidedly Republican (Democratic). Jefferson actually believed his political opponents intended to overthrow the Republic, and they thought he was planning to destroy organized society. The Federalists had a deep distrust and disbelief in popular government, that is, in government by the people. Thus we see that those holding opposite political beliefs deeply distrusted each other. Hence the timeliness of Washington's remarks on the spirit of party feeling at the close of his second term when political controversies were exceedingly bitter, and National disruption might follow.

JEFFERSON'S FIRST INAUGURAL (Page 40)

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In this address Jefferson speaks of "the contest of opinion through which we have passed, the animation of discussion and of exertions," and says, "let us, then, fellow citizens, unite with one heart and one mind." He also reminds his hearers that during the throes and convulsions of the ancient world . . it was not wonderful that the agitation of the billows should reach even this distant and peaceful shore and should divide opinions as to measures of safety," and that "I know, indeed, that some honest men fear that a republican government cannot be strong, that this Government is not strong enough."

What is the meaning of these remarks? The presidential campaign of 1800 marks a turning point in Ameri