the high chalky cliffs which face the coast for a considerable way on each side of the South Foreland, from those which skirt the bold and rugged shore of the Isle of Thanet,-a place formerly detached from the rest of Kent by a navigable river, but now little more than a peninsula. The most easterly point of this isle is the North Foreland; between which and Orfordness, there is a vast gulf into which the rivers Medway, Thames, Crouch, and Maden, discharge their waters, and along which, the shore, after passing the Isle of Sheppy, is for the most part flat and marshy. From Orfordness to the spacious inlet called the Wash, the coast assumes a circular direction, and presents an intermixture of low ground, sandy hillocks, and clayey precipices. Crossing the Wash, and keeping the level beach of Lincolnshire, we come to the Humber, beyond which, with the exception of Spurnhead, Flamborough-head, and Scarborough, there are few indentations or promontories of note. Scarborough stands on a vast rock, projecting into the sea; but Flamborough-head is a far more magnificent object, being formed of limestone of a snowy whiteness, and stupendous height, visible far off at sea. From Spurnhead to Flamborough-head, the coast is commonly flat; from this to Bamborough castle, it is first bold and precipitous, and then descends to low cliffs of sandstone and other materials; and from this to Berwick-upon-Tweed, it is tame and sandy. Not far from the shore, opposite to the Northumbrian coast, appear the Coquet isle, the Fern isles, and Holy isle. CHAP. IV.--CLIMATE--SOILS STRATA-MINERALS-ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE KINGDOMS. THE climate of England may be characterized as variable, inclining to moisture and cold, though neither extreme of temperature is felt so keenly here as on the continent under the same parallels. There is perhaps no country in Europe which displays a richer and more beautiful verdure for such a large portion of the year, as the southern part of our island. It would appear, however, that the climate of England has not only become considerably colder in the summer months, but also more humid than in former days. In illustration of this circumstance, William of Malmesbury -who has been more particular in his information than many other historians—remarks, in his book 'De Pontificibus,' that the vale of Gloucester used to produce, in the 12th century, as good wine as many of the provinces of France; and, it is well-known, that in the counties of Worcester, Hereford, Somerset, Cambridge, and Essex, there are lands which bear the name of vineyards,-many of them having been attached to particular church-establishments, whose ruins are yet in their vicinity. In regard to the vale of Gloucester, William of Malmesbury says, there is no province in England which has so many and good vineyards, neither on account of Concerning the origin of these sands there are various opinions; but the common re.. ceived story of their having once been the estate of Godwyne, earl of Kent, the father of Harold, who fell at Hastings, is now exploded, as well as their having once been an island called Lomea, and having been destroyed by the sea in the year 1097. The most probable opinion of our best antiquaries is, that instead of these sands being occasioned by an inundation of the sea, they were caused by the sea's leaving them at the time of that terrible inundation in the reign of king William Rufus, or in that of Henry I., which drowned so large a part of Flanders and the Low Countries. This desertion of the sea in these parts might have been further increased by following inundations in ether places, especially upon the parts of Zealand which anciently consisted of fifteen islands, eight of which were swallowed up in Henry the Second's time. their fertility or the sweetness of the grape.' Of late years, however, all experiments to cultivate the vine in England, except when trained against walls, have failed. The climate of Wales is more humid and is colder than that of England under the same parallels. Average Quantity of Rain and Dew.] Dr Halley supposes the average quantity of rain that falls in England to be 22 inches; but this is certainly below the average. Mr Walton, with much greater probability, fixes it at 31.3 inches. In this country it generally rains less in March than in November, in the proportion-as a medium-of 7 to 2; less in April than in October, in the proportion of 1 to 2; and less in May than in September; at least the chances for this are as 4 to 3. Dr Hales thinks that the quantity of dew that falls on moist earth in this country is 3.28 inches; but Mr Walton has estimated the total deposition at 5 inches annually; and thus reckons that 36 inches of water are deposited, at a medium, annually on the surface of the earth in England and Wales, which is equal to 28 cubic miles, or 115,000,000,000 tons. Temperature.] It appears from an account kept at Liverpool for 25 years, by Mr Hutchinson, that the mean heat in that city, at 12 noon is 53°. The greatest degree of heat experienced was 86°; the least 22o.The mean heat at Dover is 53°; at London 51° 9'. It is said that in the winter of the years 1794, 1798, and 1813-14, the thermometer was observed to sink to 5o of Zero. In the summer of 1808 it was as high as 90o. Winds.] The W. and S.W. winds are very prevalent, and also the most violent in the south part of the island. Next to them are the N. and N E. winds. The former may be accounted for from the exposure of the island to the Atlantic ocean. The latter which prevails generally from about the middle of April to the 7th or 8th of May-and sometimes longer-may be thus accounted for. In Sweden and Norway the face of the country is covered with snow to the middle of May or longer. This frozen covering, which has been formed during winter, grows gradually shallower to the 15th or 16th of May, or until the sun has acquired 17° or 18° of N. declination; while, on the other hand, the valleys and mountains of England have received an accession of temperature of 24° or 25°. On this account, when the temperature of Sweden and Norway is cooled down by snow to 32°, that of Britain is 24° or 25° higher than that of the preceding countries; because, while the ground is covered with snow, the rays of the sun are incapable of heating the air above 32°. For this reason, the air of England is 24° or 25° more heated than that of the before-mentioned countries. The air of Sweden and Norway will then, of course, by the law of comparative specific gravities, displace that of England; and from the relative situation of those countries with this country, will produce a N.E. wind. This current is commonly stronger by day than by night, because the variation of temperature in the air of Great Britain is at that time the greatest, being frequently from 50° to 60° about noon, and sinking to 32o in the night. The wind that most seldom occurs is that from the S. State of the Barometer.] Mr Hutchinson ascertained that the mean height of the barometer at Liverpool, during 25 years, was 29.74 inches; the greatest range being 2.89; and the annual average range 1.96. The barometer at Dover, on an average of 5 years, showed a mean height of 29.90, and 2.47 of greatest range, the mean range being 1.80. The mean annual height at York, on an average of 4 years, was 29.70; and at London, for many years, 29.88. According to Mr Kirwan, the usual variation of the barometer in England is 2.5 inches, Soils.] The soils of England are various, but may be classed under the following general heads: clay, loam, sand, chalk, gravel, and peat. Mossy soils are very common and extensive in the northern parts of England.— The wolds of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex exhibit a larger extent of one species of soil than any part of the kingdom. Strata.] The whole of England may be considered as composed of a series of flat or undulating beds, placed one above another, and sloping very gently upwards from S. E. to N.W. The general surface of the island also rises pretty uniformly from the E. and S. shores to the mountainous districts of the W. Minerals.] The following are the minerals of England, with the districts where they are found: Minerals. Gold. Horn-ore. Tin. Copper. Lead. Iron. Where found. In different places, particularly it is said near Silsoe, in Bedfordshire; but never in a quantity so great as to indemnify the labour of procuring it. In Cornwall. It is wrought with secrecy, and the quantity procured is uncertain. Cornwall. The quantity of tin furnished by this county is great; the quality excellent. Cornwall has been noted for this metal from the earliest antiquity. Redruth, Alston's Land End, in Cornwall, in Yorkshire, in Staffordshire, and in the Parry's mountain in Anglesey. Mendip hills, Somersetshire, Derbyshire, and Alston in Cumberland, where the mines employ 1100 men. Found in many districts. The chief mines are those of Colebrook dale, Shropshire; Dean-Forest, Gloucestershire; and Ulverston, Lancashire. Mendip hills, Shropshire. Newcastle, Shields, Sunderland, and in many districts in the central, northern, and western parts of England. Cheshire. The mines of Northwich are so extensive as to produce, yearly, 65,000 tons. Portland and Purbeck. Derbyshire. Berkshire. The principal minerals of Wales are silver, copper, iron, lead, and coal. These are found principally in the counties of Flint, Caernarvon, Montgomery, and Cardigan. M. Bakewell, in his 'Introduction to Geology,' states that in South Wales, adjoining the Bristol Channel, there is from 12 This useful fossil was known to the Britons before the arrival of the Romans, who, says Pennant, had not even a name for coals, though Theophrastus describes them very accurately, at least three centuries before the time of Cæsar, and even says that they were known to workers in brass. Brand says that they were burnt by the Romans. The Anglo-Saxons knew, and partly used them. Brand, however, observes that they were not mentioned under the Danish usurpation, nor under the Normans; but were known in the reign of Henry III. In 1306 they were prohibited in London, as a nuisance, but were used in the palace in 1321, and became, soon after, an important article of commerce. In 1512 they were not always used, because not having got to the main stratum, people complained that they would not burn without wood. The best was then sold at 5s. a chaldron; a bad sort at 4s. 2d. Except blacksmiths, they were confined, in the 17th century, under the name of sea-coal, to the lower orders, who could not afford to buy wood; and were hawked about the streets in sacks, upon men's backs. 1000 to 1200 square miles of coal, sufficient to supply England for 2000 years, after all other coal-mines are exhausted. Mineral Springs.] England abounds in mineral waters, the principal of which are: Bath, celebrated ever since the times of Roman domination, the hot wells of Bristol,-those of Tunbridge in Kent,-of Buxton in Derbyshire, Scarborough and Harrowgate in the north,-and Cheltenham in Gloucestershire. Animal Kingdom.] The English horse has been greatly improved by crossing with the finest foreign breeds, till in spirit, strength, and speed he is fully equal or superior to that of any country. The different breeds of sheep, too, have been greatly improved by the care and skill of the breeder. Dogs of every variety have been naturalized here; but the bull-dog is said to be peculiarly English, and it possesses strength and courage in an extraordinary degree. Of savage animals, since the extirpation of the wolf-which was effected in the reign of James VII.—the largest and strongest are the fox and wild cat. The badger is frequently met with, as also the stoat, the martin—of which there are two species-the otter, the squirrel, and the dormouse. Rats are numerous, particularly the brown rat of India falsely called the Norway rat, which has nearly extirpated the native iron-gray rat. Mice of various kinds are common. The hedgehog is not rare, and the mole is still a nuisance in every rich and well-cultivated field. The stag is yet found in its native state upon the borders of Cornwall, and two species of fallow-deer are still preserved. Hares are abundant. The sea-calf and great seal are frequently seen upon the coasts, particularly the coast of Wales. The larger birds of prey have now almost everywhere disappeared, as indeed they generally do from a country well-cultivated and well-inhabited. The golden eagle is still found on Snowdon in Wales, and the black eagle is sometimes seen in Derbyshire; but the osprey or sea-eagle seems to be extinct. The peregrine, or foreign falcon, is confined to Wales; but the various kinds of hawks are numerous all over the country. The largest wild bird is the bustard; it is found only in the eastern counties, and weighs from 25 to 27 lbs.; the smallest is the golden-crested wren, which sports in the branches of the loftiest pines. The nightingale, celebrated for its plaintive tones and extraordinary compass of voice, is confined chiefly to the eastern and middle counties, and is rarely observed to the north of Doncaster. The domestic birds of England seem to be wholly of foreign origin: the poultry from Asia, the Guinea fowl from Africa, the peacock from India, the pheasant from Colchis in Asiatic Turkey, and the turkey from America. The English reptiles are the frog, the toad, a species of tortoise, lizards of several kinds, and serpents, some of which have been found 4 feet in length. The viper alone is venomous. On the coast are found turbot, dace, soal, cod, plaice, smelt, mullet, pilchards, and herrings; the basking-shark sometimes occurs on the Welsh coasts. The river-fish are the salmon, trout, the char, the greyling, the samlet, the tench, the perch, and many other kinds. Various parts of the coast afford shell-fish of different species. The most esteemed oysters are the green oyster from Colchester in Essex, and the white oyster from Milton in Kent. According to Pennant, the number of genera of British animals is 10; of birds 48; of reptiles 4; and of fish 40, exclusive of coriaceous and shell-fish. Vegetable Kingdom.] Of the vast variety of trees which wave on her hills, and adorn her innumerable plantations, a very few only are indigenous to England; and of these the oak, which carries the terrors of her name, the fruits of her industry, and the light and spirit of her admirable institutions over the globe, is the chief. Shrubs, ferns, mosses, lichens, and fungi, are far too numerous to be here described. The flora of England, though it cannot boast of the most splendid and exquisite of vegetable productions, yet contains as great a variety of genera and species as any other country of equal extent. The first for importance and variety is the family of grasses, of which 27 genera and 110 species are natives of our island. The leguminous or papilionaceous plants are likewise numerous. There are about 60 species of umbelliferous, and 28 of bulbous-rooted plants. The native fruits belong, for the most part, to the natural class of rosaceous plants. CHAP. VI.-AGRICULTURE AND MANUFACTURES. SECT. I.-AGRICULTure. Northern Counties.] Northumberland is a distinguished agricultural district. Farming being here conducted on a great scale, by men of intelligence, enterprise, and capital, has reached a high degree of perfection, although the climate is severe, compared with that of most other counties in England. The soil varies through many gradations, from great fertility to a state of irreclaimable barrenness. The size of farms varies in most parts, from £50 to £500 of rent; in Glendale and Bamborough, from £500 to £1,500. In the northern parts of the county, some tenants farm from £2,000 to £4,000 a year. Leases are generally granted for 21 years.-Grazing has long been the principal object of the Cumberland farmers; and, till very lately, little more corn was here raised than was sufficient for the sustenance of the inhabitants. Extensive enclosures, however, have been recently made, and considerable quantities of flour and oatmeal are now exported. The dairies are small, but the butter is of excellent quality.-The soil of Westmoreland is in some of the lower places of the county excellent; but a great part of it is wholly wild, and in its present state of so little value, that, in some places, the liberty of keeping ten sheep at grass may be hired for a sixpence. The farmers here were long of opinion that their lands were better suited to grass than to corn; and they ploughed them for three or four years, not so much for the purpose of raising corn, as to renovate them for grass, by destroying the moss which in a few years over-runs all their arable land. These notions, however, are now in a great measure antiquated. The clover and turnip-husbandry has made great progress, and considerable quantities of wheat are annually grown, though oats is the grain principally cultivated. Fold-yard dung and peat-ashes are the only manure; for although the limestone of the county is inexhaustible, the want of coal to burn it prevents its general application. In some parts of the county considerable portions of land are covered with coppices, consisting principally of oak, ash, elder, birch and hazel. These underwoods are generally cut down once in 16 years, for hoops and charcoal. The hoops are sold on the spot at £5 a thousand. The charcoal is sent to the iron-furnaces in the neighbourhood. The farms are generally small, and the rents made up by the sale of cattle, sheep, wool, butter, eggs, and hams. The Durham farms in general are of small extent; but excellent and powerful horses are bred here, and the cattle by suitable feeding are brought to a large size. In the East Riding of Yorkshire, particularly upon the Wolds, agriculture is conducted upon a large scale, and has arrived at a |