PUGIN often as possible in this position. Each chancery has its counter movement, by which a man may sometimes extricate himself. The "upper cut" is generally used in close quarters. It consists in striking from below upward with the back of either hand, hitting the man under the chin or in the face, according to his position. Some boxers take a position occasionally with the right foot advanced, instead of the left; but this position is not considered good, and it is much more difficult, with the right foot advanced, to protect the body. See Egan, "Boxiana, a Sketch of Ancient and Modern Pugilism" (5 vols., London, 1818); Brandt, "Habet! A Short Treatise on the Law of the Land as it affects Pugilism" (London, 1857); "Fistiana" (24th ed., London, 1863); Maclaren, "Training, in Theory and Practice" (London, 1866); Harrison, "Athletic Training and Health" (London, 1869); Flint, Physiology of Man," vol. iii., p. 374 et seq. (New York, 1870); "The Slang Dictionary (London, 1870); and "American Fistiana, from 1816 to 1873" (New York, 1874). "Bell's Life in London" contains accounts of the most important English prize fights, and Wilkes's "Spirit of the Times " (New York) of English and American fights. The "Spirit of the Times" for May 5, 1860, contains a full account of the fight between Heenan and Sayers. PUGIN. I. Augustus, an English architectural draughtsman of French extraction, born in Normandy in 1769, died in London, Dec. 19, 1832. He made many architectural drawings for engraving, but is best known by a series of elaborate works on the Gothic architecture of the middle ages. These comprise "Specimens of Gothic Architecture selected from various ancient Edifices in England," &c. (2 vols. fol. and 4to, with 114 plates, 1821-23), the descriptions of which were written chiefly by E. J. Wilson; 66 Architectural Illustrations of the Buildings of London" (2 vols. 4to, 1824), and "Specimens of the Architectural Antiquities of Normandy," &c. (1825-'8), both published in conjunction with John Britton the antiquary. He also prepared, with the assistance of his son, "Gothic Ornaments selected from various Buildings in England and France." II. Augustin Welby Northmore, son of the preceding, born in London, March 1, 1812, died at Ramsgate, Sept. 14, 1852. He designed ornamental Gothic furniture and metal work, and published "Designs for Gothic Furniture in the Style of the 15th Century" (1835), "Designs for Iron and Brass Work in the Style of the 15th and 16th Centuries" (1835), "Designs for Gold and Silversmiths' Work" (1836), and "Ancient Timber Houses" (1836), all of which had a material influence in promoting a revival of the taste for Gothic forms. He also published "Contrasts, or a Parallel betwen the Noble Edifices of the 14th and 15th Centuries and similar Buildings of the present Decay of Taste" (2d ed., 1841). Becoming a convert to the Roman Catholic faith, he devoted himself to the study of ecclesiastical Gothic architecture, and thereafter invariably declined to design for Protestant places of worship, and seldom accepted commissions from Protestants. The chief exceptions to this rule were the gateway to Magdalen college, Oxford, and the elaborate medieval ornamentation of the new parliament houses. He purchased an estate at Ramsgate, and erected a house, church, schools, &c., all of which were dedicated to St. Augustine. His chief publications besides those mentioned are: "Examples of Gothic Architecture" (3 vols. 4to, 225 plates, 1838); "True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture " (1841); "An Apology for the Revival of Christian Architecture" (1843); and "Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament" (1844).—See "Recollections of A. W. N. Pugin, and his Father, Augustus Pugin, with Notices of their Works," by Benjamin Ferrey, with an appendix by E. Sheridan Purcell (1861), and “Photographs from 500 sketches by the younger Pugin" (2 vols., 1865). III. Edwin Welby, an English architect, son of the preceding, born March 11, 1834, died in London, June 7, 1875. He completed his father's unfinished works, and designed hundreds of churches and other public buildings in England and Ireland. Among his works are the orphanages of Hellingly and Bletchingly, the Carmelite church at Kensington, and the cathedral at Queenstown, near Cork, in conjunction with Mr. Ashlin. In 1873 he was involved in a suit for libel with the painter Millais. PUJOL, Abel de. See ABEL DE PUJOL. PULASKI, the name of counties in seven of the United States. I. A S. W. county of Virginia, bordered E. partly by New river, which, turning W., intersects it toward the south, Little river, a branch of New, completing the E. boundary; area, about 300 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 6,538, of whom 1,809 were colored. It lies between two mountain ranges, Walker mountain on the northwest and the Blue Ridge on the southeast. The surface is broken and the soil generally fertile. The Atlantic, Mississippi, and Ohio railroad passes through it. The chief productions in 1870 were 38,411 bushels of wheat, 96,690 of Indian corn, 27,301 of oats, 2,817 tons of hay, 18,580 lbs. of tobacco, 9,605 of wool, and 53,100 of butter. There were 1,104 horses, 1,147 milch cows, 4,169 other cattle, 2,018 sheep, and 4,347 swine. Capital, Newbern. II. A central county of Georgia, intersected by the Ocmulgee and Little Ocmulgee rivers, and drained by their branches; area, about 650 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 11,940, of whom 5,948 were colored. It has a level surface toward the south and rolling toward the north. The Macon and Brunswick railroad and the Hawkinsville branch intersect it. The chief productions in 1870 were 215,375 bushels of Indian corn, 13,646 of oats, 20,432 of sweet potatoes, 17,320 lbs. of butter, 15,444 of wool, and 6,617 bales of cotton. There were 855 horses, 940 | cows, 1,736 other cattle, 1,380 sheep, and mules and asses, 2,868 milch cows, 6,230 other cattle, 6,767 sheep, and 12,728 swine. Capital, Hawkinsville. III. A central county of Arkansas, intersected by the Arkansas river and drained by its branches; area, 1,200 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 32,066, of whom 5,948 were colored. In the south the surface is level, and in the north and west hilly, and the soil is moderately fertile. Lead, slate, and excellent granite are found. It is intersected by the Memphis and Little Rock, the Little Rock and Fort Smith, and the Cairo and Fulton railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 9,673 bushels of wheat, 516,519 of Indian corn, 16,442 of oats, 26,252 of Irish and 41,743 of sweet potatoes, 161,310 lbs. of butter, and 14,891 bales of cotton. There were 2,388 horses, 1,913 mules and asses, 4,341 milch cows, 5,514 other cattle, 2,288 sheep, and 24,977 swine; 2 manufactories of boots and shoes, 1 of carriages and wagons, 4 of clothing, 3 of furniture, 2 of iron castings, 2 of machinery, 2 of sash, doors, and blinds, 3 of tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware, 2 of cigars, 1 planing mill, and 10 saw mills. Capital, Little Rock, which is also the capital of the state. IV. A S. E. county of Kentucky, bordered S. by the Cumberland river, and E. by the Rock Castle; area, about 550 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 17,670, of whom 1,075 were colored. It has a diversified surface, with several elevated ranges, and contains iron, lead, and coal. The chief productions in 1870 were 43,918 bushels of wheat, 466,379 of Indian corn, 176,016 of oats, 34,790 of Irish and 21,709 of sweet potatoes, 279,716 lbs. of butter, 37,341 of wool, 47,749 of tobacco, and 2,252 tons of hay. There were 4,354 horses, 1,187 mules and asses, 4,631 milch cows, 1,655 working oxen, 4,747 other cattle, 21,579 sheep, and 22,570 swine. Capital, Somerset. V. A N. W. county of Indiana, intersected by Tippecanoe river; area, 435 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 7,801. It has a nearly level surface, about equally divided between prairie and oak openings, and a generally fertile soil. It is intersected by the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, and the Louisville, New Albany, and Chicago railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 87,640 bushels of wheat, 12,035 of rye, 60,512 of Indian corn, 25,186 of oats, 50,102 of potatoes, 147,015 lbs. of butter, 22,266 of wool, and 14,442 tons of hay. There were 2,576 horses, 3,341 milch cows, 5,427 other cattle, 7,823 sheep, and 5,008 swine. Capital, Winamac. VI. A S. county of Illinois, separated from Kentucky by the Ohio river and bordered N. W. by Cache river; area, about 175 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 8,752. It has a level and well wooded surface and a fertile soil. It is intersected by the Illinois Central and the Cairo and Vincennes railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 44,922 bushels of wheat, 195,735 of Indian corn, 16,511 of oats, 24,652 of potatoes, and 157,000 lbs. of tobacco. There were 871 horses, 842 milch | 5,715 swine. Capital, Mound City. VII. A S. county of Missouri, intersected by the Gasconade river and drained by several of its branches; area, 1,332 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 4,714, of whom 25 were colored. The surface is hilly and the soil generally fertile. It is intersected by the Atlantic and Pacific railroad. The chief productions in 1870 were 28,037 bushels of wheat, 201,019 of Indian corn, 20,873 of oats, 9,020 lbs. of tobacco, 7,150 of wool, 75,580 of butter, and 6,052 gallons of sorghum molasses. There were 1,481 horses, 1,271 milch cows, 2,949 other cattle, 3,886 sheep, and 10,154 swine. Capital, Waynesville. PULASKI, Casimir (Pol. Kazimierz PULAWSKI), count, a Polish soldier, born in Lithuania, March 4, 1747, died from a wound received in the attack on Savannah, Oct. 11, 1779. He was the son of a Polish nobleman, the starosta of Wareck, who was the chief organizer of the confederation of Bar, which was signed by his three sons (1768). Casimir, who had acquired military experience in the service of Duke Charles of Courland, entered heartily into the war for the liberation of his country. Forced to cross the Dniester, he took refuge after the storming of Bar in the monastery of Berditchev with 300 men, and after sustaining a siege of several weeks capitulated on the condition that the garrison should be set at liberty. He himself was not freed until he had pledged himself to bear proposals for a reconciliation to the chiefs of the confederates; but as soon as he was set at liberty he refused to keep a promise extorted by force. Joining his father in Moldavia, he made incursions across the Dniester, and attacked the Russians and fortified posts within the Polish borders. He carried on a desultory warfare in various parts of the country, until an unsuccessful attempt to gain possession of the person of King Stanislas Augustus, in 1771, caused a sentence of outlawry and death to be passed against him, on the ground that it was his intention to assassinate the monarch. The coalition of Austria, Russia, and Prussia for the conques. and division of Poland was soon after completed, and resistance became hopeless. Pulaski, who had lost his father and brothers in the war, made his way to Turkey, and afterward went to France, where he offered his services in the American cause to Franklin. With high recommendations to Washington he arrived at Philadelphia in the summer of 1777. He at first served in the army as a volunteer; but four days after the battle of Brandywine, in which he distinguished himself, he was appointed by congress commander of the cavalry with the rank of brigadier general. After five months he resigned his command, and entered the main army at Valley Forge in March, 1778, where he proposed to organize an inde pendent corps of cavalry and light infantry, to which congress assented. By October 330 men were in this corps, which was called Pu PULCI PULSE 79 where the strong liquor is also kept. Taken in an early stage of fermentation, when the liquid is brisk with the bubbles of carbonio acid that are given off, pulque is a pleasant drink, not unlike spruce beer; but if allowed to complete its fermentation, which it does in three or four days, and reach the condition in which Mexicans like it best, no uneducated Sep-stomach can tolerate it; it contracts the odor of putrid animal matter from the skin in which it is fermented, and is exceedingly repulsive. Among the Mexicans the pulque from certain localities or plantations is especially esteemed, as among Europeans preference is given to the wine of certain vineyards. When the flow of sap ceases, the plant dies, but not without having formed innumerable offsets by means of which the plantation may be renewed. PULSATILLA. See ANEMONE. laski's legion. With this he marched, in February, 1779, to South Carolina, reached Charleston May 8, and vigorously opposed the project of surrendering the place to the British army then before the city. On May 11 he attacked with his legion the British advance guard, and was repulsed with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, he himself escaping with difficulty to the American lines. In tember the French under Count d'Estaing and the Americans prepared to besiege Savannah. On Oct. 9 it was determined to carry the town by assault. Pulaski was placed at the head of the French and American cavalry, and during the engagement received a mortal wound. He was taken on board the brig Wasp, which lay in the Savannah river, died after lingering two days, and was buried in the river. A monument to his memory voted by congress has never been erected, but one was raised by the citizens of Georgia in Savannah. PULCI, Luigi, an Italian poet, born in Florence in 1431, died there in 1487. He held an inferior office under the republic, and was one of those for whom Lorenzo de' Medici kept a place at his table. His Morgante Maggiore, treating the legend of Charlemagne and his paladins, was first published in Florence in 1481. Óne canto of it was translated into English by Lord Byron. Pulci also wrote sonnets and other short pieces. PULKOVA. See OBSERVATORY. PULLEY. See MECHANICS, vol. xi., p. 327. PULMONARIA. See LUNGwort. PULQUE, an aboriginal Mexican name for the fermented juice of agave Americana, the American aloe, maguey, or century plant (see AGAVE), which is cultivated in southern Mexico, as well as in Central and South America, for this and other products. The plant cannot be utilized for pulque until it has completed its growth and is about to flower, a time which varies with the soil and location from 5 to 15 years. The sap stored up in the long and very fleshy leaves for the rapid development of the flower stalk abounds in sugar and mucilage. As soon as there are indications of the shooting up of a flower stalk from the centre of the plant, the central leaves and forming bud are cut out, a cavity being formed in their place, into which the sap will flow; the cavity is shaded by drawing over some of the outer leaves and tying their points. A vigorous plant will yield about two gallons a day for four or five months; as it quickly ferments, the juice is gathered from the plant three times a day in earthen jars, which are emptied into reservoirs made of raw hide tacked to a wooden frame. A portion of the juice is disposed of as pulque, i. e., simply fermented, while the greater part is distilled to form a strong alcoholic liquor, called pulque brandy, aguardiente, mezcal, and by other names. Pulque is a favorite drink with the Mexicans, and in the towns is sold in the market places and at shops called pulquerías, | 690 VOL. XIV.-6 PULSE (Lat. pulsare, to beat), the throbbing of the arteries caused by the intermitting impulses communicated to the blood by the heart's contractions, propagated as a wave by the elasticity of the arteries, perceptible to the touch in all but the smallest vessels, and visible when they are superficial or exposed; the pulsation being nearly synchronous with the contraction of the left ventricle. At each pulsation the capacity of the artery is augmented by an increase of diameter and by a partial elongation, the vessel being thereby lifted from its bed; this increase has been estimated for the carotid artery as part, but this can be only an approximation. The pulsation of the larger arteries in the immediate neighborhood of the chest, as for example the carotids, is perceptibly synchronous with that of the heart; but for those at a distance, a slight interval of time is required for its propagation. Thus the pulse of the radial artery at the wrist is sensibly later than that of the heart, and that of the posterior tibial artery, at the ankle joint, later still. But this interval in each instance is very short, and requires careful attention to be distinguished. The pulse is liable to vary, within the limits of health, from the diversities of age, sex, stature, muscular exertion, condition of the mind, state of the digestive process, and period of the day. The following table is given by Carpenter as an approximation to the average frequency of the pulse per minute at different ages: that muscular exertion increases the frequency | ondly, by leaving them in the form of a permaof the pulse. The effect of posture has thus been expressed by Dr. Guy: nent record, suitable for subsequent study and comparison. The ordinary trace of the radial pulse, taken in this way, consists of a nearly vertical ascending line, which indicates the sudden and rapid expansion of the artery, followed by an oblique and somewhat undulating descent, showing the comparatively slower and more irregular collapse of the vessel. These two ascending and descending lines are repeated for every pulsation of the artery. FIG. 1.-Trace of the Radial Pulse, taken by the Sometimes the undulations of the descending Increased Temperature. According to this, the difference between standing and lying in the former is one fifth of the whole, in the latter one eighth; when this change is effected by muscular effort the variation is greater, accounting for many cases of sudden death in persons with disease of the heart or in very weak conditions on quickly assuming an erect position. Mental excitement, the digestive process, alcoholic drinks, and elevation above the sea level, accelerate the pulse; as a general rule, though with numerous exceptions, it is more frequent in the morning than in the evening, and in sanguine than in lymphatic temperaments. The pulse is slower during sleep, and from the effect of rest, diet, cold, venesection, and the action of many drugs, especially digitalis, aconite, and hellebore. The pulse may be counted in any artery, and in a manner familiar to all, but most conveniently in the radial at the wrist, in the carotids, temporals, brachial, or femoral. The average numerical proportion of the arterial pulsations to the respiratory movements FIG. 2.-Trace of the Radial Pulse under the influence of is 4 or 5 to 1; when this proportion is widely departed from, there is either some general diseased condition of the system accompanied with fever, some obstruction to the proper aëration of the blood, or some disorder in the nervous system; in inflammatory or acute diseases, the pulse may rise to 120 and 160 in the adult, and so that it cannot be counted in the child; in pneumonia, with the quickened pulse the number of respirations increases more rapidly, the above proportion becoming as 3 or even 2 to 1; in hysteria a similar increase may occur in both without any serious cause.-The exact form of the arterial pulse has been determined by means of a contrivance termed the "sphygmograph," which consists of a small metallic or ivory plate, held in contact with the integument immediately over the vessel by means of a delicate spring, and lifted from its bed by each pulsation of the artery. The plate carries an upright rod, which in its turn moves a long but light index, the end of which traces an alternately ascending and descending line upon the surface of a strip of paper moving with uniform velocity. Thus the extent of the vertical motion measures the width of the arterial expansion; and its greater or less obliquity, as traced upon the paper, indicates its rapidity or slowness, as compared with the horizontal movement of the paper itself. Such a trace is very useful, first by showing minute peculiari-crotic type, being never tricrotic in uncomplities of the arterial pulsation, too small to be cated cases. It becomes more characteristic as distinctly perceptible by the touch; and sec- the mental condition degenerates, and assumes certain cases of disease this oscillation of the artery at the period of collapse becomes so marked that a sort of secondary beat, or reduplication of the pulse, is perceptible even to the touch; and this constitutes what is known as the double or dicrotic pulse, in which there are two perceptible pulsations of the artery for every contraction of the heart. Of these two FIG. 3.-Trace of a Dicrotic Pulse, in Typhoid Fever. pulsations, only the first is directly caused by the impulse of the heart; the second is due to the oscillation of the blood in the relaxed arterial tube. Dr. E. R. Hun, who at that time was special pathologist to the New York state lunatic asylum at Utica, published in the "American Journal of Insanity" for January, 1870, the results of a series of investigations, in which he found that the pulse of the insane "always tends toward the dicrotic or mono FIG. 4.-Trace of Pulse in Dementia. PULTENEY its typical form in the most profound state of dementia," as shown in the following sphygmographic tracing of the pulse of a patient 37 years of age. The trace given in fig. 5 shows a marked dicrotic form in a patient having slight symptoms of mania. This became ir FIG. 5.-Trace of Dicrotic Pulse in Mania, regularly tricrotic under excitement, and more regular after an outburst of excitement.Usually the pulsating movement of the blood is not continued into the capillary vessels; but when the arteries are dilated in the glandular organs at the time of their increased functional activity, the pulsation is communicated to the capillaries, and even through them to the veins. This condition, however, lasts only during the period of increased vascular excitement; and as it subsides, the movement of the blood in the capillaries again becomes uniform, and the pulsation is limited as before to the arterial system. PULTENEY, William, earl of Bath, an English statesman, born in 1682, died in London, July 8, 1764. He was educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford, travelled on the continent, and in 1705 became member of parliament for the borough of Hedon in Yorkshire. This position he owed to his guardian, Henry Guy, who subsequently left him a legacy of £40,000 and landed estate to the amount of £500 a year. He acted as a whig throughout the reign of Queen Anne, participated in the prosecution of Sacheverell, and defended Walpole in the prosecution against him in 1712. When that minister resigned in 1717, Pulteney gave up his office of secretary at war, to which he had been appointed on the accession of George I. When Walpole resumed office in 1720, Pulteney was appointed cofferer of the household; but he went over to the opposition in 1725, was dismissed from his office, and became one of the most bitter enemies of the minister. He allied himself with Bolingbroke, and published pamphlets in which he attacked the ministry so virulently as to bring about a duel in 1731 between himself and Lord Hervey, in which both were slightly wounded. Through the brilliancy of his speeches, and his patriotic sentiments, he became the most popular man in the nation; and in 1742, when Walpole was driven from power, Pulteney constructed a new cabinet with the earl of Wilmington at its head, in which he took a seat, but without office, and accepted a peerage. The administration satisfied neither the people nor his partisans. Pulteney lost his popularity, and, as Chesterfield wrote, "chrunk into insignificance and an earldom." In 1746 the Pelham ministry resigned, and Pulteney became premier; but he had so little influence that he was unable to obtain the assistance of any men of importance, and he held office only two days. In 1760 he published "A Letter to Two Great Men" (Pitt and the duke of Newcastle). As his only son had died before him, the peerage in his family became extinct. PULTOCK, Robert, an English author, whose only known work is "The Life and Adventures of Peter Wilkins" (London, 1750), which describes an imaginary race of flying islanders in the South Pacific. The name of the author was unknown till 1885, when, at a sale of books and manuscripts which had belonged to Dodsley the publisher, the original agreement for the copyright of the book was found, in which Pultock is described as "of Clement's Inn, gentleman." He sold his story for £20, with 12 copies of the work, and a set of the first impressions of the engravings. PULTOWA. See POLTAVA. PUMA. See CoUGUAR. PUMICE. See OBSIDIAN AND PUMICE. PUMP, a machine for raising liquids in pipes, either by direct action or by atmospheric pressure, and also for exhausting air from vessels. (See AIR PUMP.) The history of the hydraulic pump cannot be clearly traced. Methods of raising water by wheels with buckets attached to their peripheries, and also by means of endless ropes moved by two drum wheels, were used by the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians; and the chain pump was probably derived from the Chinese, or at least was first used by them. But there is no evidence of the employment of a valve pump until near the commencement of the Christian era, although a machine resembling a portable pump is often represented in ancient Egyptian sculptures. Vitruvius ascribes the invention of the valve pump to Ctesibius of Alexandria, who probably lived in the latter part of the 3d century B. C. The water pump of Ctesibius was described by Heron, who flourished in the same century. It consisted of two single-acting solid-headed pistons moving up and down in two vertical cylinders with lift valves at the bottom, and a branch pipe with an outgoing valve placed between the piston and the lower valve, and was very much like the simple force pump of the present day. The motive power in large machines was an undershot paddle wheel. The employment of a valve in the piston head, and placing this below the discharge pipe, so as to constitute a lift pump, was probably of later date.-According to the manner in which pumps act, they may be divided into vacuum and force pumps; but it is more common to divide them into the force pump, the common suction pump, the lift pump, and the suction and force pump combined. The power may be applied by a piston moving to and fro in a cylinder, or by a wheel revolving in a box. Rotary pumps, in which the latter method is used, may be simply force pumps or suction and force pumps, the power being applied by direct |