SCHOMBERG lish peerage, and made him master of the ordnance, while parliament granted him £100,000. He was sent to Ireland, and in 1690 took a heroic part in the battle of the Boyne, in which he lost his life. His second son Meinhardt became duke of Leinster, and succeeded his brother Charles as third duke of Schomberg. He died without male issue in 1719, when all the titles became extinct. SCHOMBERG, Henri de, count, a French soldier, born in Paris in 1573 or 1575, died in Bordeaux, Nov. 17, 1632. He was descended from the German Schombergs. After holding various high offices he became in 1619 superintendent of finance and grand master of artillery, and assisted in reducing the Protestant strongholds in Languedoc and Guienne. From 1621 to 1624 he was omnipotent as prime minister, and excited the jealousy of Richelieu, who had him displaced, but raised to the rank of marshal. He expelled the English from the island of Ré in 1627, and distinguished himself during the siege of La Rochelle; took Pinerolo in 1630, and forced the duke of Savoy to raise the siege of Casale; in 1632 commanded the army against the insurgents in Languedoc, on Sept. 1 defeated and captured the duke of Montmorency at Castelnaudary, and was made governor of Languedoc. He published Relation de la guerre d'Italie (Paris, 1630).—His son CHARLES (1601 -'56) served under him in Italy and Languedoc, succeeded him as governor of the latter province, defeated the Spaniards at Leucate in 1637, received the rank of marshal, took Perpignan in 1642, and commanded the army which invaded Catalonia in 1648. quired the title of duke by his first wife, the duchess of Halluyn. His second wife, Marie de Hautefort (1616-'91), was a favorite of Louis XIII., and one of the most celebrated women of her day, best known as maréchale de Schomberg. Не ас SCHOMBURGK, Sir Robert Hermann, an English traveller, born at Freiburg-on-the-Unstrut, Prussia, June 5, 1804, died at Schöneberg, near Berlin, March 11, 1865. In early life he was for some time partner in a tobacco manufactory in Virginia. In 1830 he went almost penniless to the West Indies, and explored the little island of Anegada, one of the Virgin group. His valuable reports on the dangerous coasts procured him in 1834 from the English geographical society and some botanists the means of exploring British Guiana, where he spent four years. He published "Description of British Guiana, Geographical and Statistical" (London, 1840); "Views in the Interior of Guiana" (1840); and reports to the geographical society, translated into German by his brother Otto, with a preface by Alexander von Humboldt (Reisen in Guiana und am Orinoco, Leipsic, 1841). The great Victoria regia lily was discovered by him on this journey. From 1841 to 1844 he was at the head of a commission to survey SCHOOL BROTHERS, &c. 681 the frontier between British Guiana and Brazil, and to make further geographical and ethnological investigations. He was joined by his brother Moritz Richard, who published an account of the journey in German (3 vols., 1847-'8). Robert was knighted in 1845, and from 1848 to 1857 he was British consul and chargé d'affaires to the Dominican republic, and afterward till 1864 consul general at Bangkok, Siam. Besides the works mentioned, he published "History of Barbadoes" (1847), and "The Discovery of the Empire of Guiana by Sir Walter Raleigh" (1848). SCHÖNBEIN, Christian Friedrich, a German chemist, born at Metzingen, Würtemberg, Oct. 18, 1799, died in Baden-Baden, Aug. 28, 1868. He was early apprenticed to a manufacturer of chemical products, and was conscripted, but was exempted from military service by the king, who assisted him in completing his education at Tübingen and Erlangen. In 1824-'5 he taught chemistry and physics at Keilhau near Rudolstadt. In 1828 he became professor at the university of Basel. In 1839 he discovered the allotropic condition of oxygen known as ozone (see OZONE), and in 1845 he produced gun cotton. His most noteworthy works are: Das Verhalten des Eisens zum Sauerstoff (Basel, 1837); Beiträge zur physikalischen Chemie (1844); Ueber die Erzeugung des Ozons (1844); and Ueber die langsame und rasche Verbrennung der Körper in atmosphärischer Luft (1845).-See Christian Friedrich Schönbein, by Hagenbach (Basel, 1869). SCHOOL BROTHERS AND SCHOOL SISTERS, the collective name of numerous associations in the Roman Catholic church, devoted to the education of youth. The first of these associations, the Ursulines, arose in 1537 at Brescia, under the direction of the first Jesuits; the "Sisters of the Congregation of Our Lady" were founded in 1597 by Pierre Fourier; the "Piarists" or "Fathers of the Pious Schools," in the same year; the "Visitation Nuns" in 1610; and the "Brothers of the Christian Schools" in 1679. In 1863 there were in France 58,883 members of sisterhoods employed in teaching, and 3,073 more directing orphan asylums and agricultural or industrial schools, while the total number of school brothers in the same year was upward of 9,000. I. SCHOOL BROTHERS. Under this name we treat solely of those congregations whose members are not priests, the "Fathers of the Pious Schools" being treated under PIARISTS. The following are the most important school brotherhoods: 1. The "Brethren of the Christian Schools," founded in 1679 by Jean Baptiste de la Salle. (See BRETHREN OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS.) 2. The "Christian Brothers," founded by the Rev. E. Rice at Waterford. Ireland, with their central house and superior general in Dublin, and numerous establishments in Great Britain, Ireland, and the British colonies. 3. The "Brothers Marists" or "Christian Brothers of the Society of Mary," founded at Bordeaux, France, in 1817, by Abbé Guillaume Joseph Cheminade, approved by Pope Gregory XVI. in 1839, introduced into the United States in 1849 by Archbishop Purcell of Cincinnati, and having in 1874 23 establishments in Ohio, Illinois, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Louisiana, and Texas. 4. The "Lamennaisian Brothers 66 or Congregation of Christian Instruction," founded in Brittany in 1820, by Abbé Jean de Lamennais, whose purpose is to teach in the poorest localities. In 1875 they reckoned about 800 members and 150 establishments in France. 5. The "Brothers of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary," founded in 1821 at Le Puy, France, by Abbé Coindrin. They opened their first house in the United States at Mobile in 1847, and in 1874 had other establishments in Mississippi, New Orleans, Kentucky, and Indiana. 6. The "Xaverian Brothers," founded at Bruges, Belgium, in 1839, by Théodore Jacques Ryken, with a special view to labor for education in the United States. They were first introduced into Louisville in 1854 by Bishop (afterward Archbishop) Spalding, and in 1875 had charge of six schools there, of one in Baltimore, and of the St. Mary's industrial school for boys near that city. 7. The "Brothers of Charity," founded in 1809, in Belgium, by Canon P. Triest, for the education of the blind and deaf mutes, and the training of orphans. In January, 1874, they took charge of the industrial school of the Angel Guardian in Boston, Mass. Besides these, there are in the United States and Canada congregations of men forming an integral portion of religious orders comprising priests. Such are the "Josephites" or "Brothers of St. Joseph," who are only a branch of the congregation of the Holy Cross, founded in 1834 at Le Mans, France, by Abbé Moreau, the various communities of Franciscan brothers belonging to the third order of St. Francis, and dependent on the Franciscan priests, and the "Clerks of Saint Viateur." II. SCHOOL SISTERS. Of these congregations the most important are the following: 1. The Ursulines. (See URSULINES.) 2. The "Sisters of the Visitation of Our Lady," founded in 1610 at Annecy in Savoy, by St. Francis of Sales and St. Jeanne Françoise de Chantal. The order numbered 87 establishments at the death of the latter in 1641, and 160 in 1700, with 6,600 members. It was approved by Pope Urban VIII. in 1626. The first establishment in the United States was made in Washington in 1808, and the order has now (1875) other monasteries and schools in Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, New York, Delaware, and Minnesota. 3. The "Sisters of Notre Dame," or "School Sisters of the Blessed Peter Fourier," founded by him and Alice Leclerc at Mataincourt, France, in 1597, abolished in 1789, revived at Ratisbon in 1832, confirmed by Pope Pius IX. in 1854, and first introduced into the United States in 1847. In 1875 they had establishments in Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Kentucky, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota. 4. The "Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur," founded at Amiens, France, in 1804, by Père Joseph Désiré Varin, Julie Billiart, and Marie Louise Françoise Blin de Bourdon, and transferred to Namur, Belgium, in 1809. Its object is to educate girls of the middle classes, and it was approved June 28, 1844, by Pope Gregory XVI. It spread rapidly through Belgium, France, Great Britain, and Ireland. The English government intrusted to the order the direction of normal schools for Roman Catholic pupil-teachers. They were called to Cincinnati in 1840 by Bishop (afterward Archbishop) Purcell, to Oregon by Archbishop Blanchet in 1843, to California in 1851, and to Guatemala in 1859. In 1871 this sisterhood owned 82 establishments, of which 20 were in the United States, with a total of 26,000 pupils. 5. The "Sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame," founded at Montreal, Canada, in 1653, by Marguerite Bourgeoys, and approved by Bishop de Laval of Quebec, and now the most numerous teaching body in Canada. The mother house is at Montreal. At the close of 1874 the order numbered 569 professed sisters and 88 novices, with 56 establishments in Canada and the United States. 6. "Ladies of the Sacred Heart." (See SACRED HEART, LADIES OF THE.) The preceding congregations have for their primary object the instruction of young girls. Others combine with the labor of teaching the care of orphan asylums, the visitation of the sick and poor, and the direction of hospitals. Such are: 1. The "Ladies of the Incarnate Word," founded in 1625 by Jeanne Marie Chézard de Matel, and approved by Urban VIII. in 1633. Their sole object at first was education; they assumed the direction of hospitals in 1866. They have many establishments in France, and eight in Texas. 2. The "Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ," founded Aug. 15, 1849, at Dernbach, Nassau, by Katharine Kaspar, approved by Pius IX. in 1860, and confirmed in 1870. Their first establishment in this country was at Fort Wayne, Ind., in August, 1868. They numbered 45 sisters and five houses in 1875. 3. The "Sisters of Our Lady of Charity," or "Eudist Sisters," founded in 1641 at Caen in Normandy, by Abbé Jean Eudes. In 1835 a modification of the rule enabling them to take charge of penitent women was introduced at Angers, the establishment there becoming known as the "House of the Good Shepherd." The change was approved by Pope Gregory XVI., and the order thereafter was called the "Sisters of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd." They have numerous establishments in Europe, came to the United States in 1842, and have opened houses in the principal cities of the Union and in Canada. 4. The "Presentation Nuns," founded at Cork, Ireland, in 1777, by Miss Nano Nagle, for the visitation of the sick and poor and the instruc SCHOOLCRAFT Albany co., N. Y., March 28, 1793, died in Washington, D. C., Dec. 10, 1864. He studied at Union college, and under Prof. F. Hall of Middlebury college, Vt., learned the art of glass making, made a mineralogical and geological tour in the west in 1817-'18, was geologist of an exploring expedition in the Lake Superior copper region and on the upper Mississippi in 1820, travelled as Indian commissioner in Illinois and along the Wabash and Miami rivers in 1821, and in 1822 was Indian agent at Sault Ste. Marie and Michilimackinac. In 1823 he married the granddaughter of an Indian chief. He was a member of the Michigan legislature from 1828 to 1832, and founded the Michigan historical society and the Algic society at Detroit. Before the latter he read two lectures on the Indian languages, for which he received a gold medal from the French institute. In 1832 he conducted the expedition which discovered the source of the Mississippi, and in 1836 secured the cession by the Indians of 16,000,000 acres of land to the United States. He was appointed acting superintendent of Indian affairs in 1836, and chief disbursing agent for the northern department in 1839. In 1845 he made a census of the Six Nations of New York for the state legislature, and in 1847 removed to Washington, and engaged under the appointment of the government in the preparation of a work entitled "Historical and Statistical Information respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States" (6 vols. 4to, with 336 plates, Philadelphia, 1851-7). He also published, in connection with his researches, "A View of the Lead Mines of Missouri" (8vo, New York, 1819); "Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley" (1825); "Narrative of an Expedition to Itasca Lake, the actual Source of the Mississippi" (1834; republished, with the account of the expedition of 1820, under the title "Narrative of an Exploratory Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi River in 1820, completed by the Discovery of its Origin in Itasca Lake in 1832," Philadelphia, 1853); "Algic Research tion of poor children. They have since forborne from visiting the sick, and become strictly cloistered. Their rules were approved by Pius VII. in 1805. Their first establishment in America was at St. John's, Newfoundland, and the first in the United States was made in New York city, Sept. 8, 1874. 5. The "Sisters of Mercy." (See MERCY, SISTERS OF.) 6. The "Sisters of Charity." (See CHARITY, SISTERS OF.) 7. The "Gray Nuns" or "Sisters of Charity of Montreal," founded there in 1745 by Mme. d'Youville, and trained to take charge of hospitals, asylums, and schools. The 24 houses dependent on Montreal in 1875 numbered 225 professed nuns and 51 novices, laboring in Canada and the United States. The houses dependent on the central establishment in Quebec numbered 107 sisters. 8. The "Sisters of St. Joseph." There are several congregations bearing this name. The principal one was founded at Le Puy, France, in 1650, by Abbé Jean Pierre Médaille, and introduced into the United States by Bishop Rosati of St. Louis in 1836. In 1875 they had establishments in the principal eastern and western states. Besides these, several less numerous congregations have originated in America, which are chiefly devoted to education. Among them are: the "Sisters of Charity of Nazareth," founded in 1812 in Kentucky, by Bishop David; the "Sisters of Loreto," founded in Kentucky in 1812, by the Rev. Charles Nerinckx, and now having establishments in nearly all the western states; the colored "Oblate Sisters of Providence," founded at Baltimore in 1825 by the Rev. H. Joubert, approved by Pius VIII. in 1831, and now increasing in numbers in consequence of the mission to the blacks intrusted to the missionary society of St. Joseph, under the guidance of the Oblates of St. Charles (see OBLATES OF ST. CHARLES); and the "Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin," founded at Philadelphia by the Rev. T. C. Donaghoe, and removed afterward to Iowa, where they have several establishments. In Canada there are the "Sisters of St. Anne," founded at Vaudreuil near Montreal in 1848, by the Right Rev. Ignace Bourget, bishop of that city, ap-es" (2 vols. 12mo, New York, 1839; repubproved by Pius IX. in 1860, and introduced into Oswego, N. Y., in 1866; they are exclusively school sisters. SCHOOLCRAFT, a county of the upper peninsula of Michigan, bounded N. by Lake Superior and S. E. by Lake Michigan; area, about 2,300 sq. m.; pop. in 1874, 1,290. It is drained by the Manistique river and other streams. The surface is rough and broken, and mostly covered with dense forests of pine. Lumbering is the chief occupation. In 1870 there were two blast furnaces and four saw mills in operation. The "Pictured Rocks," a perpendicular wall many miles long and 200 to 300 ft. high, curiously stratified, are in this county, on the S. shore of Lake Superior. Capital, Onota. SCHOOLCRAFT, Henry Rowe, an American author, born in Watervliet (now Guilderland), | lished under the title "The Myth of Hiawatha and other Oral Legends," 8vo, Philadelphia, 1856); "Oneota, or Characteristics of the Red Race of America" (New York, 1844); "Notes on the Iroquois (Albany, 1848); "Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes" (8vo, Philadelphia, 1851); and "Scenes and Adventures in the Semi-Alpine Regions of the Ozark Mountains" (Philadelphia, 1853). "The Indian Fairy Book" has been compiled from his manuscripts by C. Mathews (New York, 1868). SCHOOLS. See COLLEGE, COMMON SCHOOLS, EDUCATION, INFANT SCHOOLS, MILITARY SCHOOLS, NORMAL SCHOOLS, REFORMATORIES, and UNIVERSITY. SCHOPENHAUER, Arthur, a German philosopher, born in Dantzic, Feb. 22, 1788, died in Frankfort, Sept. 21, 1860. His father was a banker, and left him a fortune; and his mother, Johanna Frosina (1770-1838), was a novelist of merit. He studied at Göttingen and Berlin, and in 1813 maintained at the university of Jena a thesis entitled Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde, which contained the germs of his future philosophy. In 1814 he spent the winter at Weimar with Goethe, who initiated him into his own studies on colors, and Schopenhauer in 1816 published Ueber Sehen und Farben. From 1814 to 1818 he lived at Dresden, and brought his philosophical views into a system, exhibited in Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (1819; English translation by Franz Hüffer, London, 1874). (See PHILOSOPHY, vol. xiii., p. 442.) In 1820 he lectured for six months at the university of Berlin, and in 1831 settled at Frankfort. His remaining works are: Ueber den Willen in der Natur (1836); Die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens (1839) and Das Fundament der Moral (1841), which were combined and revised under the title Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik (1860); and Parerga und Paralipomena (1851), a collection of essays and his most popular work. A complete edition of his works has been published by Julius Frauenstädt (6 vols., Leipsic, 1874), who has also written Schopenhauer, Lichtstrahlen aus seinen Werken, with a biography (3d ed., Leipsic, 1874).See also Philosophie de Schopenhauer, by Th. Ribot (Paris, 1875). SCHRADER, Julius, a German painter, born in Berlin, June 16, 1815. He studied in Düsseldorf, and in 1844 received the great academical prize in Berlin, which provided him with a three years' pension during his residence in Rome. In 1851 he became professor at the Berlin academy, and member of the academical senate. He excels in painting nude figures, drapery, and costumes. His best known works are: "The Death of Leonardo de Vinci," "The Surrender of Calais," the fresco in the new Berlin museum of the "Consecration of the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople by the Emperor Justinian,' ," "Charles I. saying Farewell to his Family," "Esther in the presence of Ahasuerus," "Lady Macbeth walking in Sleep," "Cromwell at his Daughter's Deathbed," and the portraits of Alexander von Humboldt, Cornelius, Ranke, and Moltke. SCHREVELIUS, or Schrevel, Cornelius, a Dutch scholar, born in Haarlem in 1615, died in Leyden, Sept. 11, 1664. He succeeded his father as rector of the college in Leyden in 1642. He published variorum editions of many classical authors, and a Lexicon Manuale GræcoLatinum et Latino-Græcum (1654), which, often republished, has been more extensively used than almost any other work of the kind. SCHREYER, Adolph, a German painter, born in Frankfort in 1828. He completed his studies of the horse in Stuttgart, Munich, and Düsseldorf, accompanied the Austrian army in 1854 to the Danubian principalities, travelled | through Turkey, Hungary, and southern Russia, and in company with Prince Thurn and Taxis through Egypt, Syria, and Algeria; and he subsequently resided in Paris. His pictures of animals, especially of horses, and also those of human beings and of landscapes, are remarkable for vigor and brilliant coloring. Among the most celebrated are an Artillery Attack at Traktir," "Horses frightened by Wolves," "The Dying Horse," "The Wallachian Stud," "The Wallachian Extra-Post," and "The Csikós driving his Horses across the Plain." He has repeatedly received medals at the Paris exhibition. SCHRÖCKH, Johann Matthias, a German church historian, born in Vienna, July 26, 1733, died in Wittenberg, Aug. 2, 1808. He was successively professor of philosophy, of poetry, and of history at Wittenberg. His most important works are Christliche Kirchengeschichte (35 vols., Leipsic, 1768-1803; 2d ed. by Tzschirner, vols. i.-xiv., 1772-1825), and Kirchengeschichte seit der Reformation (8 vols., Leipsic, 1804-'9; 2 vols. added by Tzschirner, 1812). SCHRÖDER. I. Antoinette Sophie, a German actress, born in Paderborn, Feb. 29, 1781, died in Munich, Feb. 25, 1868. She was a daughter of the comedian Bürger, and became a celebrated tragedian, excelling as Phædra, Medea, and Lady Macbeth, and successively performing at Hamburg, Vienna, and Munich. Her last public appearance was at the Schiller centenary in 1859, when she recited the 66 Song of the Bell." She was separated from her first husband, the actor Stollmers or Smets, soon after their marriage in 1795; the singer Friedrich Schröder, who married her in 1804, died in 1818; and she did not live long with her third husband, the actor Kunst.-See Sophie Schröder, by P. Schmidt (Vienna, 1870). II. Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient, a German singer, daughter of the preceding, born in Hamburg, Dec. 6, 1804, died in Gotha, Jan. 26, 1860. In her childhood she performed as a ballet dancer; in her 15th year she appeared at Vienna in Racine's Phèdre; and in the following year she displayed great genius as a singer, and soon eclipsed all other prima donnas by her powerful voice and her excellent acting, especially in Fidelio, Euryanthe, Norma, La sonnambula, as Romeo, as Desdemona, and as Valentine in the "Huguenots." In 1828 she was separated from her first husband, Karl August Devrient, and subsequently at Dresden from her second husband, the Saxon officer Döring, after which she married the Livonian nobleman Von Bock.-See Wilhel mine Schröder, by Wolzogen (Leipsic, 1863). SCHRÖDER, Friedrich Ludwig, a German actor, born in Schwerin, Nov. 3, 1744, died in Hamburg, Sept. 3, 1816. In his childhood he performed in the strolling company of his parents, and before the age of 30 he had became one of the greatest German tragedians. In 1771 he assumed the management of the theatre at Hamburg, and wrote plays, besides translating SCHRÖDTER several of Shakespeare's, which he was the first to introduce upon the German stage. His Dramatische Werke were edited by Bülow, with an introduction by Tieck. His life was written by F. L. W. Meyer (2 vols., Hamburg, 1810), and by Brunier (Leipsic, 1864). SCHRÖDTER, Adolph, a German painter, born in Schwedt, Prussia, June 28, 1805. He studied copperplate engraving in Berlin seven years, and subsequently resided as a painter at Düsseldorf and Frankfort. In 1859 he became professor at the polytechnic school in Carlsruhe. He is distinguished for his humorous pieces, especially his "Wine Tasters" (1832), "Auerbach's Cellar" (1848), and more recently "Hans Sachs" and "Falstaff and the Page," and for genre pictures of a serious character. SCHUBART, Christian Friedrich Daniel, a German poet, born at Obersontheim, Swabia, March 26, 1739, died in Stuttgart, Oct. 10, 1791. After a dissolute and adventurous life, he was driven from Augsburg, where he had established the Deutsche Chronik (1774-7), for deriding the clergy, and transferred it to Ulm; and for publishing there a false report of the death of Maria Theresa he was imprisoned about ten years. Schiller visited him during that period, and the king of Prussia obtained his release in 1787. In Stuttgart, where he became musical director and director of the theatre, he continued his periodical under the title of Vaterlands-Chronik. He wrote Gedichte aus dem Kerker (1785), Hymnus auf Friedrich den Grossen (1786), an autobiography, and a large number of religious songs. His Gesammelte Schriften und Schicksale appeared in 8 vols. (Stuttgart, 1839-40).-See Schubart's Leben in seinen Briefen, by David Friedrich Strauss (2 vols., Berlin, 1849). SCHUBERT, Franz, a German composer, born at Lichtenthal, near Vienna, Jan. 31, 1797, died in Vienna, Nov. 19, 1828. His father was a school teacher, from whom he received his first lessons. Having a fine voice, he was admitted to the academy of the "Konvict," and became a member of the imperial chapel choir, then conducted by Salieri, whose favorite pupil he was. While at school he experimented on almost every variety of music, to some of which he gave curiously mournful titles, as "The Parricide" and the "Corpse Fantasia." Leaving the academy in 1813, he assisted his father in teaching for three years, but did not neglect his music, for during 1815 alone he wrote more than 100 songs, six operas and operettas, and some symphonic pieces, besides church and chamber music. In 1818 he was engaged by Count Esterházy to teach his two daughters; and while living with this family he composed many of his best quartets and songs. His music was not popular with the Viennese public, and he constantly experienced the mortification of seeing inferior works preferred to his own. In the spring of 1828 he gave his first and only concert. Intense enthusiasm was awakened, but the encourage ment that might have proved his salvation some years before came too late, and after a life of disappointment, embittered by failing health, he died at the age of 31. He left an astonishing number of compositions, including nine symphonies, several operas, masses, overtures, a great deal of chamber and pianoforte music, and about 600 songs. Of all this music but little was published during his life, and he heard but a very small portion of it publicly performed, being known to his contemporaries mostly as a song writer. He raised the German Lied to a place in musical art which it had not previously occupied. His fame is almost wholly posthumous, and has constantly gained strength since his death. Biographies of Schubert have been written by Kreissle von Hellborn (Vienna, 1864; English translation by E. Wilberforce, London, 1866) and Reissmann (Berlin, 1874). SCHUBERT, Gotthilf Heinrich von, a German mystic, born at Hohenstein, Saxony, April 26, 1780, died at Laufzorn, Upper Bavaria, July 1, 1860. He studied theology at Leipsic and medicine at Jena, practised medicine at Altenburg, Freiberg, and Dresden, was director of an educational institution in Nuremberg from 1809 to 1816, tutor to the children of the grand duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin till 1819, and professor of the natural sciences at Erlangen till 1827, and subsequently at Munich. He was a disciple of Schelling, and published numerous works embodying mystical interpretations of natural phenomena, and forming a system of objective idealism. Among them are: Ahnungen einer allgemeinen Geschichte des Lebens (3 vols., Leipsic, 1806-20); Ansichten von der Nachtseite der Naturwissenschaften (1808; 4th ed., 1840); Symbolik des Traums (1814; 4th ed., 1862); Geschichte der Seele (1830; 2d ed., 1833); and Altes und Neues aus dem Gebiete der innern Seelenkunde (5 vols., 1817-244). He also published manuals of natural history, narratives of travel in France, Italy, and the Levant, several volumes of tales and biographies, and an autobiography (3 vols., Erlangen, 1853-'6). SCHULTE, Johann Friedrich, a German theologian, born at Winterberg, Westphalia, April 23, 1827. He graduated at the university of Berlin in 1851, and practised law in Berlin, Arnsberg, and Bonn. In 1855 he was appointed professor of canon law in the university of Prague, and in 1863 a member of the Austrian council of instruction. During the Vatican council he declared himself opposed to the declaration of pontifical infallibility; and after the proclamation of the dogma he took sides with Dr. Döllinger and the Old Catholics. In 1871 he published at Prague a pamphlet entitled "The Power of the Roman Popes over Princes, Countries, Peoples, and Individuals examined by the light of their Doctrines and Acts since the reign of Gregory VII., to serve for the appreciation of their Infallibility, and set face to face with contradictory doctrines of |