make the streets wide and straight. Most of the domus were situated at the E. end of the city on the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline hills; they did not form streets, but were built in the midst of large gardens and fields. The city is supposed to have reached its greatest size in the time of Vespasian, when it was 13 m. in circuit, and embraced a population probably not much under 2,000,000, of whom about half were slaves. The public edifices during the palmiest days of the empire were of almost unparalleled magnificence. The high grounds of the Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, and Aventine hills were mostly occupied by the populous quarters of the ancient city, but were covered in some parts by private gardens, as those of Mecenas on the Esquiline. The Caplic edifices, with the arx (citadel) on its highest point, the Tarpeian rock. The most splendid of the many temples on this hill was that of Jupiter Capitolinus, the exact site of which is still in dispute among antiquaries. (See CAPITOL.) Latin writers, when using the name "Capitolium," usually imply this great temple, the most important and magnificent in Rome. The residence on the Palatine hill, which finally became developed into the vast palace of the Caesars, was originally the private house of the orator Hortensius, which was inhabited by Augustus and rebuilt for his use at the public expense. New buildings were raised for themselves by successive emperors, till the greater part of the hill was covered by their splendid structures. Nero built more than any other emperor, and after his first great palace had been destroyed by the most disastrous conflagration that ever visited Rome (A. D. 64), he began another, the edifices, gardens, and pleasure grounds of which extended over the Palatine, Esquiline, and Cælian hills, and the intervening valleys. This immense palace, the Domus Aurea of Nero, was almost totally demolished by Vespasian. There were several curia, or senate houses, and the senators sometimes assembled in temples, especially in that of Concord, on the southern slope of the Capitoline hill. The Curia Hostilia, the most ancient senate house, said to have been founded by Tullus Hostilius, was burned down during the tumultuous funeral of the tribune Clodius in 52 B. C., and was first restored by Faustus, the son of Sulla. This later building having been taken down, a new curia was begun, or at least projected, by Julius Cæsar, and after his death completed, if not actually founded, by Augustus, who dedicated it, in his great uncle's name, as the Curia Julia. Its exact site cannot be determined, but Roman antiquaries recognize it in the ruins of a large structure, built in brickwork like that of the Augustan age, below the N. E. declivity of the Palatine, and therefore in the immediate vicinity of the forum at its S. W. limit. The Curia Pompeiana, which was abandoned after it had been stained by the blood of Cæsar, who was there the 19 Roman fora. (See FORUM.) Among the others were the Forum Julium or Cæsaris, close behind the former; the Forum Augusti; the Forum Nervæ or transitorium, intended merely as a passageway from the two preceding to the temple of Peace; and the Forum Trajani. But little of the splendid forum of Trajan is now visible, except the celebrated column. Most of the magnificent buildings founded by that emperor within the limits of his forum were left for ages in ruin and buried under earthworks. Excavations begun by the French early in the present century, and continued by the pontifical government after the restoration of Pius VII., resulted in the discovery of some remains of the Ulpian basilica, so called from the family name of the founder (Ulpius Trajanus), and other fragments of an-itoline hill was almost entirely covered by pubtique structures, strewn over an area not more than one twelfth of the space occupied by Trajan's buildings. In this narrow place, below the level of the surrounding piazza Traiana, is all that now remains visible of the ruins of those magnificent structures. The Campus Martius, at the N. W. side of the ancient city, was almost entirely occupied by public buildings, temples (among which was the Pantheon), the mausoleum of Augustus, and pleasure grounds. This region is now covered by the modern city, and contains those streets and piazzas where the population is most dense. (See CAMPUS.) The Campus Sceleratus was the spot where vestals who had violated their vows were buried alive, and the Campus Esquilinus was originally used for the execution of criminals and the burial of the poor, though the greater part of it was afterward converted into pleasure grounds. Besides these places of public resort, there were beautiful private parks and gardens on the hills around the city. -The houses of Rome were divided into two classes, the domus, or residences of the nobles, corresponding to the modern palazzi, and the insula or dwellings of the middle and lower classes, which were often let out by floors or apartments after the modern fashion. These insula were sometimes carried up so many stories that a law was passed forbidding any house to be built more than 70 ft. high-a regulation all the more necessary as every house was surrounded by an open space of at least 5 ft. The domus had porticoes in front and inner courts called atria. The insula perhaps had smaller courts within, and in place of the porticoes they had open spaces which served for shops and workshops. The common building material was brick, at least before the time of Augustus; the upper story of the domus was generally of wood. Under the emperors more costly materials, such as marble and other stone, came into frequent use; and when Nero rebuilt the city after the great fire, he employed a kind of volcanic rock now called peperino, formed by the cementing together of sand and cinders. He also dispensed with the wooden upper story, and took pains to ROME assassinated, was one among many superb edi- | fices raised by Pompey the Great. This, together with a theatre, a temple of Venus, and a portico with 500 columns, stood between the western side of the Campus Martius and the Tiber. A few remains of this temple and theatre were visible, till concealed by recent buildings, in the cellars of a modern palace. The basilicas were chief courts of justice presided over by the urban prefects, in which the emperors themselves often heard causes and administered justice. Among these, the most splendid one founded under the republic was the Basilica Emilia, so called after its founder Emilius Paulus, 179 B. C. It is supposed that a remnant of it is preserved in the outer walls of Sant' Adriano, a church on the N. E. side of the forum. Three other basilicas founded under the republic (in the 2d century B. C.), the Porcian, the Sempronian, and the Opimian, have totally disappeared. The Julian, founded by Augustus and dedicated to Julius Cæsar, still exists in extensive but low and roofless ruins on the W. side of the principal forum. These ruins were brought to light through works undertaken by the pontifical and recently finished under the royal government. Among favorite places of resort for business or recreation were the porticoes, several of which, with far-extending colonnades, ornamented ancient Rome. One, built by Agrippa in the Campus Martius, was called Porticus Argonautarum, from a picture or series of pictures on its walls illustrating the Argonautic expedition. The only one of these porticoes the ruins of which are still considerable is that built by Augustus and named after his sister Octavia. Within the quadrangle of colonnades forming this portico stood temples of Jupiter and Juno, both wholly destroyed. We find mention of only two prisons in ancient Rome, the oldest being that founded by Ancus Martius and said to have been enlarged by Servius Tullius. Two dark subterranean chambers of these ancient prisons, known as the Mamertine, and entered below a church on the principal forum, were long ago consecrated and are still used as chapels, because supposed to have been the place where St. Peter and St. Paul were confined, and from which they were led to death. Five other vaulted chambers, mostly built of similar stonework, have recently been cleared out (one of them had long been used as a safe for butcher's meat), and are now recognized as pertaining to the same prisons, and ascribable therefore to the time of the kings. Another ancient prison was destroyed and a temple of Piety raised on its site, in commemoration of the act of the Roman daughter who saved the life of a parent condemned to die in that dungeon; a well known story narrated by Pliny the Elder and by Valerius Maximus. The military were quartered in two great camps, walled around and defended like fortresses, beyond the limits of the primitive city, the castra prætoria 411 at the N. E. extremity of the city, beyond the walls of Servius Tullius, and the castra peregrina, on the Cælian hill. The former, built by Tiberius, was occupied by the prætorian guards, and the latter by foreign legions. The aqueducts, the most stupendous works of their kind in the world, and the sewers, the chief of which, called cloaca maxima, is still in excellent preservation, are described elsewhere. (See AQUEDUCT, and CLOACE.) Scarcely surpassed by any of the public edifices were the therma or baths, whose name conveys but a very imperfect idea of the various uses to which they were devoted. Besides the apartments for bathing (see BATH), they contained places for athletic exercises, public halls, vestibules and porticoes for lounging and conversation, shaded walks and gardens, fountains, libraries, and collections of paintings and sculptures. The therma of Antoninus, built principally by Caracalla and completed by Alexander Severus, had accommodations for 2,300 bathers at the same time, and the therma of Diocletian for 3,000. The latter was the most extensive building of the kind in Rome. Those of Agrippa or Alexander Severus, Nero, Titus, Trajan, Commodus, and Constantine were also celebrated; and there were several smaller ones, besides a great number of balnea or common baths. There were only three theatres proper, those of Pompey, Cornelius Balbus, and Marcellus. The first was in the Campus Martius, and had seats for 40,000 spectators; the second, near the Tiber, where the Cenci palace now stands, could contain 11,600 people; and the third, in the S. part of the Campus Martius, between the Capitoline and the river, could hold 20,000. The first theatres were mere temporary structures of wood, though even these were sometimes of extravagant splendor, like that upon which M. Æmilius Scaurus wasted an enormous fortune, and which was large enough to seat 80,000 spectators. The stage was decorated with 360 columns, arranged in three stories, the lowest of white marble, the middle of glass, and the uppermost of gilt wood. The odeum in the Campus Martius was a sort of music hall, and was capable of accommodating 11,000 persons. The circus dates its introduction into Rome long prior to the erection of permanent theatres. (See CIRCUS.) Amphitheatres, for gladiatorial combats and shows of wild beasts, were at first built of wood and taken to pieces after the performances were over (see AMPHITHEATRE); the first stone edifice of the kind was erected by Statilius Taurus in 30 B. C. Another was begun by Caligula, but never finished. The great Flavian amphitheatre, founded by the emperor Vespasian (of the Flavian family) about A. D. 72, dedicated by his son Titus in 80, and called the Colosseum from its vast size, is still in its ruinous state among the most imposing of Roman antiquities. Excavations carried on in its interior by the government since 1873 have brought to light many complicated structures, elliptic | mentioned, of which the most important are arcades, chambers, and long vaulted corridors, the arch of Titus, on the Via Sacra, of Penabout 22 ft. lower than the level formerly sup- telic marble, built to celebrate the capture posed to be that of the ancient arena. (See COLOSSEUM.) Among the numerous temples of the city, the two most magnificent were those of Jupiter Capitolinus and of Venus and Rome; the former, on the Capitoline hill, founded by Tarquinius Priscus, and several times rebuilt, the last time by Domitian, being undoubtedly the larger; the latter, founded by Hadrian, probably the richest in decoration. The temples still conspicuous in ruin in the forum and on the slope of the Capitoline hill are those of Castor and Pollux, of Saturn, and of Vespasian and Titus. That dedicated by Antoninus Pius to his deceased wife Faustina still partially exists in a magnificent peristyle with monolithic columns, and the massive stone walls of the cella, or sanctuary, near the S. E. angle of the forum. The circular temple with a graceful marble colonnade of the Corinthian order, close to the Tiber, which was long miscalled the temple of Vesta, is now generally assigned to Hercules, to whom many temples in Rome were dedicated. The real temple of Venus, said to have been founded by Numa, is now recognized in the low, massively constructed remnant of a circular building at the S. W. extremity of the forum, brought to light by excavations made in 1873. Most interesting is another discovery, in the same vicinity, of an edifice so ruinous that even the style of its architecture is not distinguishable, but which may be recognized beyond doubt as the Edes Cæsaris, a temple raised by Augustus on the spot where the body of Julius Cæsar was consumed in the flames after his funeral. In front of this building is still seen the Rostra Julii, a semicircular platform of stone which Augustus erected before the threshold. The temple of Pallas, in the forum of Nerva, existed, still beautiful in ruins, till 1612, when it was taken down in order to use its columns and marbles for the construction of a large fountain erected by Pope Paul V. on the Janiculan hill. The Pantheon was dedicated, according to common belief, to all the gods, though Dion Cassius says it was sacred to Mars and Venus. (See PANTHEON.) Prominent among the other remarkable features of the city were the triumphal arches thrown across the principal streets in commemoration of victories; 21 are Arch of Titus. of Jerusalem, and still standing; the arch of Septimius Severus, of the same material, at the entrance of the Via Sacra into the forum; Arch of Constantine. the arch of Constantine, at the mouth of the valley between the Palatine and Cælian hills, with three archways, adorned with beautiful ROME columns, bass reliefs, and statues, erected to | commemorate the victory over Maxentius; and the arches of Dolabella, Gallienus, and Drusus. The most interesting of the columns erected in various parts of the city is that of Trajan, in the forum of Trajan, which was dedicated to that emperor by the senate and Roman people in commemoration of his victory over the Dacians. It is composed of 34 pieces of white marble, 9 of which form the base, 23 the shaft, and 2 the torus and capital. The height of the entire column, exclusive of the statue on its summit, is 127 ft., and of the shaft alone, 97 ft. The base and capital are of the Tuscan order, the shaft Doric, and the mouldings of the pedestal Corinthian. A series of bass reliefs form a spiral around the Forum and Column of Trajan. shaft from the base to the summit, representing the military achievements of the emperor. There are 2,500 human figures in the sculptures, and many horses, military engines, and weapons. The column was formerly surmounted by a statue of Trajan, but its place is now occupied by one of St. Peter, which was erected by Sixtus V. In the interior of the column is a spiral staircase of 184 steps. The column of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, in the piazza Colonna, erected A. D. 174, is similar to that of Trajan, but inferior in design and execution. Its height is 122 ft. 8 in., the shaft being 97 ft. On the summit is a statue of St. Paul, placed there by Sixtus V. Of the many obelisks in Rome, the highest is that of the 413 Lateran, the shaft of which is 105 ft. 7 in. It was brought from Heliopolis to Alexandria by Constantine the Great, and removed by his son Constantius to Rome. The obelisk of the Vatican was brought from Heliopolis by Caligula. The obelisk of Santa Maria Maggiore is one of the two which formerly stood at the entrance of the mausoleum of Augustus; they are supposed to have been brought from Egypt by Claudius. The obelisk of the piazza del Popolo once stood before the temple of the sun at Heliopolis, whence it was removed to Rome by Augustus. Another obelisk, that of Monte Citorio, was also brought to Rome from Heliopolis by Augustus. The mausoleum of Augustus, in the Campus Martius, surrounded by a large park, was built by that emperor as the burial place of the imperial family, and was one of the most magnificent edifices of his reign. The mausoleum of Hadrian is now the castle Sant' Angelo. The tomb of the Scipios was discovered in 1780; and among the other most imposing sepulchral monuments were the tombs of Cæcilia Metella, Cestius, and Septimius Severus.-Modern Rome. The modern city occupies very nearly the same space as the ancient; lat. of the observatory of the collegio Romano, 41° 53' 52" N., lon. 12° 28' 40" E.; pop. in 1846, 180,000; in 1852, 175,838; in 1858, 180,359; in 1872, 244,484. Since the change of government in 1870, the population has rapidly increased, but many new streets opened since then are yet scarcely inhabited. The Tiber has a course within the walls of about 3 m., and is crossed by five bridges, viz.: the Ponte Sant' Angelo, the ancient Pons Elius, opposite the castle of Sant' Angelo at the N. W. end of the city; the Ponte Sisto, built by Sixtus IV. in 1474 on the ruins of the Pons Janiculensis, connecting the city proper with the quarter of Trastevere; the Ponte di Quattro Capi (so called from a four-headed statue of Janus), the ancient Pons Fabricius, and the Ponte San Bartolommeo, the ancient Pons Cestius, connecting the Isola di San Bartolommeo, the former with the city, and the latter with the Trastevere; and the Ponte Rotto, on the site of the ancient Pons Emilius; this last was partly washed away in 1598, and a suspension bridge now extends from the remaining portion to the shore. The ruins of the old Pons Triumphalis and Pons Sublicius are visible when the water is low. The walls are nearly 13 m. in circuit, those on the left bank of the river following the line of the wall of Aurelian; they have been so often repaired that it is difficult to assign a date to any portion of them. On the outside they are 50 ft. high, on the inside generally less than 30. They have no ditch, but are crested with about 300 towers and pierced by 13 gates still in use. The general level of the city has been considerably raised by the rubbish accruing from long habitation and from the ruins of ancient edifices, so that the lower parts are estimated to be at least 15 ft. higher than they were in with a breadth of from 1 to 13 m. Many of | the streets are long, but they are mostly narrow and crooked. They have seldom any foot pavement, and are often filthy, and present in their architecture a mixture of magnificence and meanness, stately palaces and churches alternating with miserable huts. The three finest streets diverge from a square called the piazza del Popolo near the N. gate. These are: 1, the Corso, which extends to the foot of the capitol and is a mile long, perfectly straight, 50 ft. wide, with foot pavements on each side; it is the great public walk of the city; 2, the strada del Babbuino, which runs to the piazza di Spagna; 3, the strada di Ripetta, which leads to the Tiber. The houses of Rome are generally lofty, and are mostly built of brick and tufa, marble being less commonly used than in the cities of northern Italy. The city is divided into 14 rioni or quarters, corresponding to the 14 regions of Augustus, but not resembling them in size or situation; 12 of these divisions are on the left bank and 2 on the right bank of the river. 1. The rione de' Monti is the largest quarter, containing, among other public buildings and monuments, the column of Trajan; the church of St. John Lateran, the chief church of the city in point of antiquity and ecclesiastical dignity (see LATERAN); the church of Sta. Bibiana, which covers the relics of 5,260 martyrs; the splendid church of Sta. Maria Maggiore, with the Sistine and Borghese chapels; the villas Albani and Borghese, and the ruins of the baths of Titus and Diocletian. 2. The rione di Trevi contains the Corso; the piazza di Monte Cavallo, in which stand two colossal antique statues of horses; the Quirinal, formerly the pope's ordinary residence, now the royal palace; the palazzo della Consulta; and the magnificent Barberini palace, rich in treasures of art and literature. 3. In the rione di Colonna stand the column of Antoninus, the Pantheon, the palace of the propaganda, and the piazza di Spagna, one of the finest squares of the city. 4. The rione di Ripetta. Farnese Palace. Campo Marzo comprises most of the area of the ancient Campus Martius, the porta del Po polo (the chief entrance to the city on the N. side), the mausoleum of Augustus, the Pincian |