The rule of the Redemptorists prescribes, besides the three usual monastic vows, a fourth, which obliges the members to accept outside of the order no dignity, office, or benefice, except upon an express order of the pope or the superior general, and not to leave the order unless by special permission of the pope. The principal sphere of action of this order has been the conducting of what is called a "mission," lasting one, two, or more weeks, during which time the missionaries endeavor to prevail upon all the members of a church to devote their time principally to religious exercises and a thorough reformation of their lives. St. Alfonso and his companions followed in this the method of the Jesuit missionaries in Italy. When the Jesuits were suppressed by Clement XIV., Alfonso aimed at replacing them by his order as popular instructors. This circumstance, and Alfonso's known love for the suppressed order, caused the Redemptorists to be not unfrequently confounded with the Jesuits. The order spread early from Naples into Sicily and the Papal States; but even before the death of the founder all the houses in the kingdom of Naples were excluded from the order, because they had procured a ratification from the government at the expense of important and unauthorized alterations of their rule. The division lasted till 1790, when a reunion was effected. The first German members established missions in Courland and at Warsaw, but both succumbed to the wars arising out of the French revolution. In Austria they have had since 1808 many influential patrons, and it has ever since remained one of the most im REDDING, Cyrus, an English journalist and author, born in Penryn, Cornwall, in 1785, died in London, May 28, 1870. He went to London in 1806, was engaged upon the staff of "The Pilot," and established and conducted the "Plymouth Chronicle." From 1815 to 1818 he resided in France, where he edited "Galignani's Messenger." He was editor of the "New Monthly Magazine" from 1820 to 1830, jointly with the poet Campbell, with whom in the latter year he began the "Metropolitan," which proved unsuccessful. Subsequently he edited for two years the "Bath Guardian," and in 1836 established the "Staffordshire Examiner," both liberal in politics. He returned to London in 1840. His works include a collection of poems published under the title of "Gabrielle" (1829); History and Description of Modern Wines" (1833), which has been many times republished; Fifty Years' Recollections, Literary and Personal" (3 vols., 1858); "Keeping up Appearances," a novel (1860); "French Wines and Vineyards, and the Way to Find them" (1860); "Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas Campbell" (2 vols., 1860), originally contrib-portant provinces of the order. In France they uted to the "New Monthly" soon after the poet's death; "All's Well that Ends Well" (1862); "Memoirs of Remarkable Misers" (2 vols., 1863); "Yesterday and To-day" (1863); and "Past Celebrities whom I have Known" (2 vols., 1865). 66 66 REDEMPTION, Equity of. See MORTGAGE. REDEMPTORISTS, or Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, known also as Liguorians, a society of missionary priests in the Roman Catholic church, founded by St. Alfonso Maria da Liguori. The foundation of the society dates from Nov. 9, 1732, when Alfonso, with twelve priests, two candidates for orders, and a rich gentleman who volunteered to serve them as lay brother, united in community at Scala, in the Neapolitan province of Benevento. After laboring together successfully for some time, Alfonso deliberated with his companions on the choice of a rule of life; but the diversity of opinions among them became irreconcilable, and they dispersed, one priest and the lay brother, Vito Curzio, remaining with Alfonso. As Alfonso continued his labors, new members flocked to him, several houses were established, and the rules drawn up by him for the government of the society were approved in 1749 by Pope Benedict XIV., Alfonso himself being chosen superior general for life. suffered some losses from the interference of the government in 1830, and again in 1861. They have found an important sphere of action in the United States, whither they first came in 1841, and where they principally labor among the German population. In 1858 a number of American Redemptorists left the order and established with the pope's sanction an independent missionary congregation. (See PAULISTS.) In 1874 they were called to Canada and placed in charge of St. Patrick's church, Quebec. In 1870 the Redemptorists were involved with the Jesuits in the decree of the Italian parliament suppressing all religious orders in Italy; in 1873 their central residence in Rome was also suppressed. In the latter year the German parliament decreed their expulsion from Germany, and on May 31, 1875, another decree sequestrated their property and deprived them of all civil rights in Prussia. A similar proscription swept away their houses in Switzerland and banished their members. In France, where they possessed eleven houses in 1869, their numbers have not increased since the war, the French government refusing the Redemptorists exiled from Germany permission to settle there. These have taken refuge principally in the British empire and colonies, and in the United States. In this country REDFIELD RED JACKET 235 they have (1875) houses in Maryland, Massa- | vancement of science several papers on those chusetts, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Illinois.- fossils. He published during his life 62 essays, A congregation of Redemptorist nuns, which of which 40 pertain to meteorology; the best was likewise founded by Liguori in 1732, has known are accounts of hurricanes. (See HURnever extended itself widely. RICANE, and METEOROLOGY.) REDFIELD, Isaac Fletcher, an American jurist, born in Weathersfield, Vt., April 10, 1804, died in Boston in March, 1876. He graduated at Dartmouth college in 1825, studied law, and practised at Derby and afterward at Windsor, Vt. From 1835 to 1860 he was a judge of the supreme court, being chief justice from 1852; and from 1858 to 1862 he was professor of medical jurisprudence in Dartmouth college. In 1861 he removed to Boston. From January, 1867, he was for two years special counsel of the United States in Europe, having charge of many important suits and legal matters in England and France. He received the degree of LL. D. from Trinity college in 1848, and from Dartmouth in 1855. He published "The Law of Railways" (1857; 5th ed., 2 vols., 1873); "The Law of Wills" (3 vols., 1864); "The Law of Carriers and Bailments" (1869); "Leading American Railway Cases" (2 vols., 1870); and with W. A. Herrick, "A Treatise on Civil Pleading and Practice" (1868). From 1862 he was one of the editors of the "American Law Register" (Philadelphia); and he also edited Story "On Equity Pleadings" and "Conflict of Laws," and Greenleaf "On Evidence," and contributed very largely to periodicals. RED FIN. See DACE. REDGRAVE, Richard, an English painter, born in London, April 30, 1804. He studied at the royal academy, and in 1837 exhibited his first successful work, representing “Gulliver on the Farmer's Table." His subsequent genre pictures delineate the sufferings of the poor, and at a later period he painted landscapes. His most celebrated pieces are "Country Cousins," "Cinderella," "Ophelia," "The Governess," and "Bolton Abbey." He was elected to the royal academy in 1857, and holds (1875) the offices of inspector general of art schools, for which he has prepared a system and course of instruction, and surveyor of crown pictures. He has published "An Elementary Manual of Colors" (London, 1863), and in conjunction with his brother, Samuel Redgrave, "A Century of Painters of the English School" (1866). The latter has also published "A Dictionary of Artists of the English School" (1874). REDI, Francesco, an Italian naturalist, born in Arezzo, Feb. 18, 1626, died in Pisa, March 1, 1698. He was physician to successive grand dukes at Florence, and acquired a high reputation in his profession, and also as a naturalist, classical scholar, and poet. He belonged to the school of Galileo, and his writings are alike distinguished for depth of scientific inquiry and philosophic acumen. He first clearly enunciated the doctrine that all living organisms must have originally sprung from preexisting germs, and contended that in all cases of the apparent production of organized beings from dead matter, as in putrefactions and animal and vegetable infusions, the previous existence or subsequent introduction of such germs must be presumed. He openly attacked the doctrines of the abiogenists, or defenders of the theory of spontaneous generation, opposing their assertions by a series of simple and for the time almost conclusive experiments, which still serve modern naturalists as a basis in sim REDFIELD, William C., an American meteorologist, born in Middletown, Conn., March 26, 1789, died in New York, Feb. 12, 1857. In early life he was a mechanic. In some pedestrian journeys he observed the course of the hurricane in September, 1821, long known as the "great September gale," and became convinced that the storm, instead of moving in a straight line, according to what was then supposed to be the law of such storms, had rotated around a central point, and that its movement had been in curved lines. Having established a line of steam tow boats on the Hudson, and taken up his residence in New York, he investigated the connection of steam with navigation, and in pamphlets, essays, and pub-ilar researches. (See SPONTANEOUS GENERAlished letters discussed the causes of steamboat explosions, the means of safety, and the necessity of careful and frequent inspection. In 1828 he published a pamphlet urging the importance of a system of railways to connect the waters of the Hudson with those of the Mississippi; and he was largely engaged in promoting railroad construction. In 1831 he first gave to the public his "Theory of Storms," and three years later an elaborate article on the hurricanes of the West Indies. After 1836 he devoted much time to the investigation of the fossil fish of the Connecticut valley and the sandstones of the Atlantic coast in New Jersey, Virginia, and North Carolina, and made a very large collection of them; and he read before the American association for the ad TION.) His most important works are Osservazioni intorno alle vipere (4to, Florence, 1664; Latin translation, Amsterdam, 1678); Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl' insetti (1668; Latin, 1671), which had many editions; and Osservazioni agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi (1684). The finest of his poems is Bacco in Toscana (1685), a eulogy of the wines of Tuscany. He also wrote lives of Dante and Petrarch. The latest edition of his complete works was published at Milan in 1809, in 9 vols. 8vo. RED JACKET (SA-GO-YE-WAT-HA), a principal chief of the Senecas, of the Wolf tribe, born at Old Castle, near the foot of Seneca lake, in 1752, died at Seneca Village, near Buffa lo, N. Y., Jan. 20, 1830. His original In dian name was O-te-ti-ani, "Always Ready," that of Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, "He keeps them awake," having been conferred upon him on his election to the dignity of a sachem. The name of Red Jacket arose from a richly embroidered scarlet jacket presented to him by a British officer, which he always took great pride in wearing. Of his early history little is known except that he was remarkably swift in the chase, and was often employed as a messenger, first among his own people, and during the revolution as a runner for the British officers on the border. In 1784, in a comcil held at Fort Stanwix to negotiate between the United States and the Six Nations for the cession of lands, he spoke very eloquently against the treaty, but with no avail. A few years later Red Jacket had an interview with Washington, who gave him a silver medal. In 1809 he gave information to Erastus Granger, the Indian agent, of the organization by Tecumseh of an extensive league by which the Senecas were to be drawn into a combination against the United States. In 1810 he visited Washington, and delivered an able speech upon this subject before the secretary of war. In the war of 1812 he on several occasions gave advice which proved of essential service to the American army, especially on the eve of the battle of Chippewa. In 1829 Red Jacket visited New York on his way to Washington, and while there sat for his portrait to Robert W. Weir. Although in his 77th year, he was still strong and vigorous. In his later years he was grossly intemperate, but invariably abstained from fire water for a season before a council. Red Jacket was upon the war path during both conflicts between the United States and Great Britain, in the first on the British and in the second on the American side; but in neither did he win the right to wear the eagle plume. His character was marked by striking contradictions. He lacked firmness of nerve, but possessed unbending firmness of purpose and great moral courage. His intellectal powers were of a very high order. He was a statesman of sagacity, and an orator of surpassing eloquence, yet capable of practising the lowest cunning; but he was still a patriot, and loved his nation and his race. His life has been written by W. L. Stone (8vo, Albany, 1867). 84,000 francs. He invented a method of painting in colors, for which he received a inedal from the society for the encouragement of national industry. REDPOLL. See LINNET. RED RIVER, a tributary of the Mississippi, and the last of considerable size which it receives. It rises in N. W. Texas, in about lat. 34° 40' N. and lon. 102° 10′ W., and flows E. to the 100th meridian. Thence it follows a direction a little S. of E., separating Texas from Indian territory and Arkansas, and entering the latter state, bends at Fulton to the south, passes into Louisiana, and afterward flows S. E., entering the Mississippi 341 m. above its mouth. Its length is about 1,200 m., and its basin is about 97,000 sq. m. in extent. Its sources are in the fissures of an elevated and barren plain, the Llano Estacado, 2,450 ft. above the sea. For about 60 m. the banks rise perpendicularly from 500 to 800 ft. After leaving the Llano Estacado it flows over a broad bed of light shifting sands through an arid prairie country to the cross timbers," a belt of woodland between the 98th and 97th meridians. Below this the river flows through rich and densely wooded alluvial bottoms. "Here the borders contract, and the water for a great portion of the year washes both banks, carrying the loose alluvium from one side and depositing it on the other, in such a manner as to produce constant changes in the channel, and to render navigation difficult. This character continues throughout the rest of its course; and in this section it is subject to heavy inundations, which often flood the bottoms to such a degree as to destroy the crops, and occasionally leave a deposit of white sand, rendering the soil barren and worthless." From its source to Fulton, Ark., about 600 m., the stream falls 2,208 ft.; thence to its mouth, 595 m., the fall is only 188 ft. The width between the banks 8 m. below the point where it issues from the Llano Estacado is 2,700 ft.; just below the mouth of the North fork, 2,000; 50 m. lower down, 2,100; at the mouth of the Big Wichita, 600; at Alexandria, La., 720; at the mouth of the Black river, 785; and at the entrance into the Mississippi, 1,800. "The depth varies inversely as the width, being REDOUTÉ, Pierre Joseph, a French painter of only 6 or 8 ft., even in floods, throughout the flowers, born at St. Hubert, near Liége, July desert, while it is some 50 ft. in the fertile 10, 1759, died in Paris, June 19, 1840. He region. In extreme low water a depth of 3 belonged to a family of painters, and, having ft. may be depended upon below Alexandria, settled in Paris, painted some of the most ele- about 4 ft. thence to the head of the raft, and gant flowers in the series known as the col-1 ft. thence to Fort Towson (Indian territory). lection des velins, commenced under Louis XIV. In 1822 he became professor of vegetable iconography at the jardin des plantes. His magnificent works, Les liliacées (8 vols. fol., Paris, 1803-'16), and Les roses (3 vols. fol., 1817-224), are the finest known specimens of botanical illustration. A copy of the former on vellum, with the original drawings, was purchased by the empress Josephine for Steamers of 4 ft. draught can ascend to Shreveport, La. (330 m. above its mouth), at any time except in extreme low water, but to Fort Towson or even Fulton for only about three months in the year, and frequently only run in one direction during a single rise." The river is generally highest from December to June or July, the rest of the year being the season of low water. The raft has been a RED RIVER serious obstacle to navigation, as it required the boats to leave the channel and pass through lakes and bayous. The "great raft," an immense collection of trees and drift wood, extended from near Grand Ecore to a little below Shreveport when the United States first undertook its removal. Capt. Shreve opened a navigable channel through it in 1835-'9. Meanwhile, from continued accessions of drift timber, the head of the raft was carried above Shreveport to near Hurricane bluff. This portion was opened by Gen. Williamson and Capt. Linnard from 1841 to 1845. In 1871 the foot of the raft was at Carolina bluff, a few miles above Hurricane bluff, and its head near Springbank, about 45 m. above its foot. Operations were begun on this raft, under the direction of Lieut. Woodruff, on Dec. 1, 1872, which resulted in opening a navigable channel through its whole length in November, 1873. At a small annual expense for a few years the renewal of the raft may be prevented, and an excellent cotton region between Shreveport and Fulton developed. Red river receives its name from its peculiar color, supposed to be derived from the red clay of the gypseous formation through which its upper course lies. The chief tributaries on the left bank are the North fork (a little W. of the 99th meridian) and the Washita, in Indian territory; Little river, in Arkansas; and Black river, formed by the Washita and Tensas, which enters in Louisiana not far from the Mississippi. On the right bank the chief tributaries are the Pease and Big Wichita rivers, which enter from W. Texas. In Louisiana Red river sends off numerous bayous, which find their way back again to the main stream, forming frequent lakes. -In the spring of 1864 an immense expedition of combined land and naval forces, the former under Gen. Banks and the latter under Admiral Porter, was sent up the Red river to capture Shreveport and thus open up the great cotton districts of Texas. It was unsuccessful, Banks's defeat at Sabine Cross Roads by Gen. Kirby Smith (April 8) compelling also the retreat of the fleet down the river. This was effected with great difficulty and loss, the river being very low and still falling, and the gunboats and transports exposed to the fire of the confederate forces from the banks. On reaching the falls, near Alexandria, further progress would have been impossible but for the bold conception and construction of a dam by Lieut. Col. Bailey of Wisconsin. (See ALEXANDRIA, La.) The main dam still remains intact, and the river has formed a new channel on the W. shore. RED RIVER. I. A N. parish of Louisiana, intersected by Red river, and bounded E. by Black river; area, 325 sq. m. It has been formed since the census of 1870. The surface is level, and the soil fertile and productive of cotton and corn. Capital, Coushatta Chute. II. A N. E. county of Texas, separated from the Indian territory by Red river, and bounded S. by Sulphur river, one of its branches; RED RIVER OF THE NORTH 237 area, 872 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 10,653, of whom 4,148 were colored. It has an undulating surface and fertile soil. The chief productions in 1870 were 385,840 bushels of Indian corn, 13,444 of oats, and 3,069 lbs. of wool. There were 2,522 horses, 1,242 mules and asses, 3,813 milch cows, 868 working oxen, 9,547 other cattle, 1,739 sheep, and 20,131 swine. Capital, Clarksville. RED RIVER OF THE NORTH, a stream rising in Elbow lake, 1,680 ft. above the sea, on the border of Becker and Beltrami counties, Minnesota, in about lat. 47° 10' N. and lon. 95° 25' W. It flows S. for about 100 m. through several small lakes to Otter Tail lake in the county of the same name, and thence W. 100 m. to Breckinridge, Wilkin co. (lat. 46° 15', lon. 96° 35'), whence it runs N. about 550 m., separating Dakota from Minnesota and dividing Manitoba into two unequal parts, and empties into the S. extremity of Lake Winnipeg (628 ft. above the sea) through six mouths, amid extensive marshes, about lat. 50° 30' and lon. 96° 50'. It is very tortuous, its length being about twice that of straight lines following its three principal directions. The portion between Breckinridge and Otter Tail lake is also called Otter Tail river, the term Red river being sometimes restricted to the portion below Breckinridge. It is sluggish, except at the rapids or chutes, flowing through a very flat prairie, between clay banks varying from 20 to 60 ft. in height. The area within the United States drained by it is about 32,000 sq. m., in which the annual rainfall is comparatively small. The water is muddy but agreeable to the taste. The river is subject to annual spring freshets, very variable in duration and height, which are due to ice gorges. Its valley is but thinly settled. The principal towns along its banks, all of which are small, are Breckinridge, McCauleyville, and Moorhead in Minnesota, Fargo and Pembina in Dakota, and Winnipeg or Fort Garry in Manitoba. Between Moorhead and Fargo, 50 m. N. of Breckinridge, the Northern Pacific railroad crosses it. The business on the river consists principally in carrying supplies for the settlements in Manitoba and bringing back furs. Two or three small steamers ply in summer between Moorhead and Fort Garry, and a considerable amount of freight is floated down in flats. At Breckinridge the Red river receives the Bois de Sioux or Sioux Wood river, flowing N. from Lake Traverse. The chief tributaries from the west are the Wild Rice, Cheyenne, Elm, Goose, Turtle, Big Salt, Little Salt, and Pembina rivers in Dakota, and the Scratching and Assiniboin rivers in Manitoba, the latter being its largest affluent. From the east the principal tributaries are the Buffalo, Sand Hill, Red Lake, Snake Hill, and Two rivers in Minnesota, and the Roseau or Reedgrass river and the rivière Seine in Manitoba. These streams drain an immense number of small lakes. RED SEA, an inlet of the Indian ocean, extending from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, lat. 12° 40′ N., nearly N. N. W. to Suez, lat. 29° 57' 30", and separating Arabia on the east from Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia on the west. Its length is about 1,400 m., its greatest breadth, near lat. 16, 200 m., and its total area about 185,000 sq. m. At the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, by which it is joined to the Indian ocean, it is but 18 m. wide, at Hodeida about 95 m., and at Jiddah about 120 m. At Ras Mohammed, lat. 27° 45', it is divided into two branches by the rocky peninsula of Mt. Sinai or Jebel Musa. The western branch, the gulf of Suez, which is the continuation proper of the Red sea, is about 180 m. long, and has an average breadth of 20 m. It has the same general course as the main part of the sea, with which it is connected by the strait of Jubal. At its N. extremity the Suez canal connects it with the Mediterranean, from which it is separated by the isthmus of Suez. The eastern branch, the gulf of Akabah, extends N. N. E. from its mouth at the strait of Tiran, about 100 m., and has an average breadth of about 12 m. The Red sea varies greatly in depth. In the middle of the gulf of Suez it is from 250 to 300 ft. deep, but shoals gradually to 18 or 20 ft. in the harbor of Suez, where it has been filled up by the sand. The gulf of Akabah varies from 700 to 1,500 ft. in depth. The deepest sounding obtained is in the Red sea proper, in lat. 22° 30', where the depth is 6,324 ft. In the S. part it is shallower, and below lat. 16° its depth ranges from 250 to 750 ft. A section through the middle of the sea from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb to Suez represents a series of rounded submarine hills, covered with silt, mud, and sand. The sand, which is blown in from the neighboring deserts, constitutes the only distinctive feature between this ooze and that of the bottom of the Atlantic. Near the shores on both sides the water is generally shallow, and navigation is rendered dangerous by many rocky islands, shoals, and coral reefs. The principal islands are the Farsan group on the Arabian coast, about lat. 17°, and the Dahlac group on the W. side, in lat. 16°, each consisting of large islands surrounded by many smaller ones connected by reefs. In lat. 15° 40' is Jebel Teir, having an active volcano, the summit of which is more than 1,000 ft. above the sea. Nearly S. of it is the Zebayer group. Kamaran island, off the coast of Yemen, is claimed by the British. In lat. 14° is Jebel Zugur, and in the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, commanding the entrance from the Indian ocean, is Perim, a fortified British possession. (See PERIM.) At the entrance of the gulf of Akabah is the island of Tiran, dividing it into two channels, of which only the western one, called the strait of Tiran, is navigable for large vessels; and at the mouth of the gulf of Suez are Shadwan island and several smaller ones.The Red sea occupies the bottom of a longitudinal valley lying between the highlands of Arabia on the east and the mountain range on the west, which borders Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt. On the N. side, between the gulf of Suez and the Mediterranean, the country is low and flat, and exhibits indications that a communication once existed between the two seas. The mountains are in sight on both sides of the sea, but a considerable part of each coast is low and flat or covered with undulating hills, the mountain range being in some places 20 or 30 m. from the shore. It is probable that the sea once covered the entire basin, but has been filled up in part by the growth of coral and the accumulation of sand. The Arabian town of Muza, marked as a seaport in the Periplus of Arrian, is now several miles inland. The coral reefs, which are more extensive than in any other sea of equal size, lie generally in long lines parallel to the shores, and from 500 yards to a mile distant from them. The banks are usually from 4 to 6 ft. below the surface, and the water on their outer edge is very deep, but on the inner side they are sometimes connected with the land. Where they are unconnected with the shore there is generally a channel within them navigable for small vessels and having good anchorage. The native vessels make great use of these inner straits, where the heavy winds of the open sea affect them but little. There is no surf on the reefs, as the porous coral permits the passage of the waves through them. The reefs are more numerous on the E. than on the W. side. The growth of continental coral reefs in the Red sea in a more northerly latitude than elsewhere is accounted for by the absence of rivers on the coast, and by the high temperature of the water, which is seldom below 80° F. In March and April it is sometimes 84°, and in May 90°. The genera of coral are nearly the same as in the central Pacific, and consist of most of the reef-forming species. Some of the meandrinas and favias are from 6 to 9 ft. in diameter. The coral is generally white, but often red, and a black variety is found along the Arabian coast for 50 m. N. and S. of Jiddah. Sponges of fine quality are taken in abundance along the E. shore of the gulf of Suez, and pearl oysters are found in various places. As the Red sea receives but little water from the atmosphere or from the surrounding country, and the sun's rays generally fall on it from a cloudless sky, it may be considered merely a basin for evaporation, which proceeds at the rate of about four fifths of an inch a day, or 23 ft. in a year. From a little more than 39 parts of salt in 1,000 at the straits of Babel-Mandeb, the proportion rises in the N. part to 43, a degree of saltness found elsewhere only in inland salt lakes. As the concentration of so much salt through evaporation would tend in time to fill up the sea, it is supposed that the waters most charged with salt flow out through the straits in an undercurrent, while the lighter and less saline waters flow in above it.-The winds are generally pretty constant. |