ations are public; the initiative belongs both to the | ing finances and the postal service is explained by royal power and to every member of the landsting. the increase of commercial activity, which also The landshöfding, or prefect of the län, assists naturally figures among the sources of income. and takes part in the deliberations. The landsting The diet of 1856 marked one of the stages of this has the authority to fix, according to a budget transformation by increasing the salaries of offiagreed upon, the taxes or necessary loans. But cials; the budget of ordinary expenditures was it must have the royal approval for expenditures increased that year from 19,315,380 to 25,508,500 involving taxation for more than five years, or riksdalers riksmynt, that is to say, 32 per cent. loans payable at a time longer than five years, or -Extraordinary expenditures are voted for one for the alienation of the domains. — The relation | year, and must be paid partly by the office of the established between the various communal author- state, and partly by the office of the public debt ities and the royal power is such that, though a cer- (riksgäldskontor). In 1869 the first had to pay tain number of their resolutions, to be valid, must 5,496,371 riksdalers riksmynt for the artillery obtain the consent of the king or of his represent- service and the railroads; the second, 1,187,999 atives, a consent which may be refused, communal r. for roads, canals, etc. All the expenditures for liberties at least can suffer no prejudice, it being 1869 amounted, therefore, to 45,086,999 r. Two impossible to make any provisions to their preju- special credits in view of unforeseen expendidice. The royal authority in case complaints are tures should also be mentioned; the first of which preferred to the king, may annul, administratively, can only be employed in case of war, the second communal decisions if they violate any private may be used for other pressing needs. The pubright. This new institution of the landsting has lic revenues, for the greater part, are paid to the perhaps not been in operation long enough yet to office of the state. There is the ordinary income, be judged accurately. It is probable, however, that which combines several varieties of ancient land it affords an efficient intermediary between the tax, estimated, in 1869, at 4,693,800 r.; crown central power and the local authorities. —II. Fi- tithes, that is to say, that part of the tithes which, nances. Each diet frames the budget of receipts at the time of the reformation, was reserved to and expenditures for the following year. The ex- the crown, and which now amounts to 1,684,200 penditures are ordinary or extraordinary, a divis- r.; the poll tax, a personal tax which has become ion which is not expressed in the law regulating insignificant, 600,000 r.; and the farming of royal the form of government, but which was established domains, 410,000 r. Many of the ordinary taxes by the force of things, and has been practiced have been abolished in recent years, but the prodsince 1841. The ordinary expenditures are includ- uce of those which remain (most of them are ed under nine principal heads: the civil list, the paid in kind) are increased by a more exact seven ministerial departments, the pensions, and estimate of prices. The ordinary revenues inthe retired list. The following is a comparison, creased notably in 1869, since that was the first between the budgets of 1869 and 1841: Civil list, year in which they included the product of the in 1841, 1,079,550 rixdalers riksmynt (royal mint), railroad traffic, 6,400,000 r., so that the sum (6.7 per cent. of all the expenditure); in 1869, total of receipts was 15,260,720 r. - Extraor1,417,000 r. (3.7 per cent.); increase since 1841, 31 dinary resources consist in taxes voted by the per cent. Justice, 1,034,355 r. (6.4 per cent.); diet each year: 1, the customs, which produced, 2,354,100 r. (6 per cent.); 12.7 per cent. Foreign in 1861, 14,857,508 r., and in 1871, 19,116,601 r. affairs, 338,475 r. (2.1 per cent.); 457,950 r. (1.1 2, the tax on the manufacture of spirits; in 1861, per cent); 32 per cent. War, 6,159,765 r. (38.2 per 8,002,669 r., and in 1871, 11,719,493 r.; this tax cent.); 9,528,000 r. (24.9 per cent.); 54 per cent. has become important only since the diet of 1854 Navy, 1,997,145 r. (12.3 per cent.); 3,963,800 r. provided that this manufacture should pay 50 öre (10.3 per cent.); 98 per cent. Interior, 1,268,550 on a measure called kanna, and the diet of 1857 r. (7.8 per cent.); 9,086,500 r. (21 per cent.); 53.7 raised this figure to 60 ore. 3, the postal service, per cent. Finances, 2,071,155 r. (12.8 per cent.); the produce of which (serving simply to maintain 6,359,200 r. (16.6 per cent.); 20.7 per cent. Pub- and extend it) was, in 1861, 1,675,446 r.; in 1871, lic worship, 1,483,320 r. (9.2 per cent.); 4,714,700 2,271,306 r. 4, stamps; in 1861, 1,551,408 r.; and r. (12.3 per cent.); 20.7 per cent. Pensions and in 1870, 1,347,215 r. The whole amount of exretired list, 682,005 r. (4.2 per cent.); 1,321,373 traordinary receipts was, in 1841, 7,006,500 r.; in r. (3.4 per cent.); 93 per cent. To sum up: in 1869, 26,350,000 r.; in 1872, about 49,400,000 r., 1841, 16,114,320 riksdalers riksmynt; in 1869, including the communal tax (allmänna-bevillning); 38,202,629 r.; increase, 137 per cent. The riks- in 1871, 2,887,400 r. was paid to the office of the daler riksmynt is worth 1 franc 429 m., for there public debt. This office has to meet the public are 100 ōre in the riksdaler, and a franc is worth debt with this and its other resources, under the 70 ōre. (The riksdaler is valued at 1 fr. 414.) direction, control and administration of the diet. The considerable increase of expenditures for The budget of 1874 reached 60,000,000 riksdalers justice is explained, not by the number of crimes of ordinary and extraordinary expenditures. — and misdemeanors, but by the erection of prisons Till 1854 Sweden had only an insignificant debt; of a new system. It will be remarked also that one but in that year the diet decided that railroads of the principal items of increase was for public should be built by the state, and the necessary capinstruction. The increase of expenditures touch-ital be obtained by loans. The years immediately

following gave receipts sufficiently good to redeem | In 1880-81 a further loan of $22,000,000 was

a number of these loans; but at the end of 1867 there were 91,148,235 r. of Swedish bonds; to which, in 1868, a foreign loan of 18,000,000 riksdalers was added. [The national income at present (1883) is derived, to the extent of one-third, from direct taxes and national property, including railways; and the rest, mainly from indirect taxation, customs and excise duties, and an impost on spirits. The sources of revenue and branches of expenditure of the kingdom for the year 1882-3 were established as follows, in the budget estimates passed in the session of 1882 by the diet:

Sources of Revenue for 1882-3.

Domains, railway, land taxes, etc...

Customs..

Kroner. 20,590,000

..17,070,000

78,749,137

58,536,711
7,827,589

10,187,932
2,196,905
78,749,137

issued at 4 per cent., mainly to redeem previous
issues bearing higher rates of interest. All the
loans are paid off gradually by means of sinking
funds.-F. M.]
A. GEOFFROY.

-III. Religion. Religious liberty has been, till within recent years, entirely unknown in Sweden. Two laws of 1860 gave, in this regard, very incomplete satisfaction to public sentiment. The following is, according to the terms of this new legislation, the actual condition of dissenting Christians living in Sweden. Dissenters, who wish to meet and form a religious association in a given place, must present a request 27,500,000 to the king, in order to obtain the necessary per5,100,000 mission for the exercise of their religion. Every 3,000,000 authorized association must choose a head, and 4,100,000 have its choice approved by the civil authority of 1,600,000 the place. The elected head must furnish all in2,789,137 formation demanded of him by the government relative to his coreligionists. No religious order is permitted. Associations or religious communities can not, unless by special authorization of the king, own real estate, except for churches and cemeteries. Celebration of mixed marriages belongs to the clergy of the Swedish church. Legitimate children born of dissenting parents may be freely educated in the doctrines professed by their parents. In case of a mixed marriage, if the father belongs to the national church, the children must be educated in the Evangelical doctrine. If the father is a dissident, the agreement written at the time of marriage must be followed, or, in default of agreement, the father is at complete liberty to educate his children in the dissent ing community. But he must inform the pastor of the parish of his determination, and undergo the remonstrances of this pastor, together with those of the chapter. Sweden has an archbishop, at Upsala, and eleven bishops, who are appointed by the king from a list of candidates drawn up by the clergy. The pastors of cities are also appointed by the king. The ministers of rural parishes are elected by the people. The mass of the population adhere to the Lutheran-Protestant church, recognized as the state religion. At the census of 1870 the number of "Evangelical Lu therans" was returned at 4,162,087, the Protestant dissenters, Baptists, Methodists, and others, numbering 3,999. Of other creeds, there were 573 Roman Catholics, 30 Greek Catholics, and 1,836 Jews. IV. Public Instruction. Sweden has long been one of the countries of Europe in which primary instruction is most disseminated. Education is not free except for the poor, but it is obligatory, in this sense, that children can not be admitted to their first communion until they are able to read and write. In each parish there is a school directed by a teacher and supervised by the pastor. The teacher is generally appointed by the bishop of the diocese. The programme of primary instruction includes reading, writing, Swedish grammar, the catechism, sacred history,

-The expenditure for the army, church, and for certain civil offices, is in part defrayed out of the revenue of landed estates belonging to the crown, and the amounts do not appear in the budget estimates. To the expenditure for foreign affairs Norway contributes annually 304,700 kroner, a sum not entered in the estimates. The expenses for public instruction are in great part defrayed by the parishes and the provincial assemblies (landsting).—To the riksgäldskontor, the supervision of which is exclusively exercised by the diet, belongs the administration of the public debt-exclusively incurred for the construction of railways-and the right to contract any loans which the diet may vote. On Jan. 1, 1881, the public liabilities of the kingdom were as follows, according to reports laid before the diet:

Railway loan of 1858, at 4 per cent..

1860, at 4%

Kroner. 13,942,400 14,270,133 1,802,800

8,853,000 25.263.467 20,052,272

14,150,700 18.356.300 36,309,333 35,539,120 26,232,000

Unfunded obligations repayable by Nov. 1, 1885.. 9,000,000

Total

226,399,102

was abolished by the diet in 1872. —The total strength of the armed forces of Sweden in 1882 was as follows:

Line.

Bevaring. Militia.

Total.

Officers and staff..
Infantry.
Cavalry
Artillery (258 guns).]
Engineers..

1,905

337

127

28,692

126,000

8,038

5,076

4,000

2,369 162,730 9,076

4,248

5,000

228

9,476

915

915

There are also volunteers, first organized in the
year 1861, by the spontaneous desire of the popu-
lation of the kingdom. In time of peace the
volunteers are individually free, and bound by no
other rules and regulations than their own, but in
time of war they may be compelled to place them-
selves under the command of the military author-
ities. However, they can be required only to
serve within the limits of their own districts.
the end of 1882 the volunteers numbered 11,065
men. In 1882 the total army of Sweden, officers
and men, numbered 195,901, with 258 guns and
6,646 horses. In the parliamentary session of
1862, and again in the sessions of 1865, 1869, 1871
and 1875, the government brought bills before the
diet for a reorganization of the whole of the army,
but none of them were adopted by the represent-

sacred music, swimming, gymnastics, an abridgement of national history, and a brief study of the physical and political constitution of the two united kingdoms. In certain districts there are traveling teachers, who go from farm to farm and place themselves for a certain time at the disposal of parents who are unable to send their children to the parish school. Establishments for intermediate instruction, called Latin schools, or learned schools, are under the almost exclusive control of the bishops. The study of the German, English and French languages is the object of particular care. Several large cities contain also gymnasia, or day colleges, and free institutions founded and managed by private persons. Higher instruction is given in the two universities of Upsala and Lund. The university of Upsala is one of the oldest and richest in Europe. Its foundation goes back to the year 1476. It is placed under the direction of a chancellor (who is generally one of the great personages of the state, sometimes even a prince of the blood), and is managed in fact by a rector aided by a consistory. The ordinary fellows, or tutors, are not clothed with any official title, but they are authorized to teach freely in the halls of the university. The university is divided into four faculties: theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. The university of Lund is organized on the same plan. Both universities are under the same chancellor. In the year 1878 nearly 98 per cent. of all the chil-atives of the people. — The navy of the kingdom dren between eight and fifteen years visited the public schools. There were 5,031 male and 5,183 female teachers in the primary schools in 1878. The university at Upsala is frequented by 1,500, and that at Lund by 650, students per annum. -V. Army and Navy. The Swedish army is composed of four distinct classes of troops. 1. The värfvade, or enlisted troops, to which belong the royal life-guards, one regiment of hussars, the artillery, and the engineers. 2. The indelta, or national militia, the privates of which are paid and kept by the land owners. Every soldier of the indelta has, besides a small annual pay, his torp, or cottage, with a piece of ground attached, which remains his own during the whole period of service, often extending over thirty years, or even longer. In time of peace the infantry of the indelta are called up for a month's annual practice, and the cavalry for thirty-six days. In time of war, an extraordinary indelta has to be raised, partly by land owners, who, on this account, enjoy certain privileges, including non-contribution to the cost of the peace establishment. 3. The militia of Gothland, consisting of thirty companies of infantry, and three batteries of artillery. They are not compelled by law to serve beyond the confines of the isle of Gothland, and have a separate command. 4. The beväring, or conscription troops, drawn by annual levy, from the male population, between the ages of twenty and twenty-five years. The law of conscription was introduced into Sweden in 1812, but the right of purchasing substitutes, which formerly existed,

is divided into three classes, namely, first, the royal navy; secondly, the royal naval reserve; and thirdly, the naval beväring. The fleet in 1882 consisted of 15 ironclads, 29 unarmed steamers, 10 sailing vessels, and 105 galleys; with a total horse power, 20,060; guns, 373; crew, 5,204.-VI. Resources. Agriculture, long developed in Sweden, has attained proportions truly remarkable. The southern provinces, whose soil is very fertile by nature, have at present the smiling and fruitful aspect of the richest plains of central Europe. In 1825 the production of cereals did not suffice for the consumption of the inhabitants, and the annual importation varied from 200,000 to 300,000 tons. Toward 1834 Sweden commenced to export wheat and flour. From 1840 to 1845 exportation rose to an average of 116,000 tons; in 1849 it rose to 377,000 tons (165 litres), and in 1855 it reached 1,739,000 tons. In 1869 the harvest consisted of 582,019 tons of wheat, 3,738,917 of rye, 2,798,634 of barley: 7,322,652 of oats, and 7,671,492 of potatoes. In the same year the live stock of Sweden numbered 420,859 horses, 1,874,360 head of horned cattle, 1,539,079 sheep, 121,911 goats, 339,248 hogs, and 140,000 domesticated reindeer. The exportation of timber has increased at a still greater rate, if possible. The mineral wealth of Sweden is recognized, and it is universally known how much the iron of Dalecarlia is sought for in the different markets of Europe. Since 1830 the iron industry has acquired new vigor. In 1833 the manufacture of bar iron was 452,000 skeppunds

and Population. The territorial extent of Switz- | ulation was 2,669,147. The following table shows, erland, according to the figures of the federal by cantons, the territorial extent, the number of topographical bureau, is 41,148 square kilometres. the population, and the religion of the inhabitants, According to the census of Dec. 11, 1870, the pop- at that date:

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