moufflon, the supposed parent of the domestic sheep, limited to the Sardo-Corsican mountains; and the auroch, or bison, lingering in Lithuania. The domestic quadrupeds occupy the most important place in the zoology of Europe, but are too familiar to need to be particularized. The horse passes within the polar circle; the ass, incapable of enduring so great degree of cold, does not go much beyond the parallel of 52°, and exists there in a degenerated condition; the Bactrian camel appears with the nomadic hordes that wander on the plains towards the Caspian.

192. People. The early history of Europe is involved in obscurity; but at different intervals, great groups of population have poured into it from Asia, conquering and coalescing with previously-settled tribes, originating its present inhabitants. The principal families of nations, more or less mixed, are,-1. The Celtic, including the GrecoLatins, occupying the south and west, Greece, part of Turkey, Italy, part of Switzerland, almost all France, Spain and Portugal, part of Great Britain and Ireland. 2. The Teutonic, comprising the Scandinavian branch, spread over Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, the adjacent islands, the Shetlands, Orkneys, Faröe Isles, and Iceland; and the German branch, inhabiting Germany, Holland, part of Switzerland, Transylvania, Schleswig, and Great Britain. 3. The Sclavonic, located in Poland, Bohemia, Silesia, east of Austria, north of Turkey, and diffused through great part of Russia. 4. Lettons, comprising Lithuanians and Courlanders, on the Russian coast of the Baltic, and in the north-east of Poland. 5. Finns, called by the Russians Tschoudes, of which Scythian is only the English Latin form, comprehending the Lapps, Permians, Samoiedes, and other tribes occupying the entire north of Russia. 6. Magyars, in Hungary. 7. Turks, chiefly in the provinces of Roumelia, and Thessaly. 8. Tartars, tribes on the shores of the Black Sea, and the sea of Azov. 9. Kalmucks, tribes in the government of Astrakhan, between the Ural river and the Caucasus. 10. Basques, inhabiting the western extremity of the Pyrenees, on the French and Spanish sides. 11. Jews, diffused generally, but especially in Germany, Poland, and Russia. 12. Gipsies, diffused generally, but most common in the south-eastern countries.-The aggregate population of Europe is estimated by M. Balbi,

at 227,700,000, and recently, by Dr. Kombst, at 234,200,000, divided as follows::

The most densely-populated districts are Great Britain and the Netherlands, including Belgium and Holland. These countries are eminently maritime, having the most extensive coasts, in proportion to their area, giving them a greater command of the means of subsistence.

193. States. Europe is politically divided into 3 empires, 15 kingdoms, including the papal states, 1 electorate, 7 grand duchies, 10 duchies, 9 principalities, 1 landgraviate, 10 republics, and 1 lordship; amounting to 57 independent states. Existing disturbances have led to important changes in forms of government, at present very unsettled, and may probably produce some territorial modifications. The states marked with an asterisk in the Table (pp. 220 and 221) belong to the Germanic Confederation. Among the states of Europe, those of the first rank are Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. They are called the five great powers, because they exert a decided influence upon the policy of their neighbours, and have in fact collectively settled continental questions for some time past. Sweden, Holland, Spain, and Turkey, are states of the second rank. They are not controlled directly by any other power, and could not be controlled without difficulty, but they have very little influence upon the general state of the continent. Belgium, Denmark, Bavaria, Saxony, Switzerland, Portugal, Sardinia, and Naples are states of the third rank, too feeble to resist the surrounding powers without assistance, but important as auxiliaries, and hence often courted for that purpose. The smaller states of Germany and Italy, with the free cities, are entirely dependent upon the larger, and owe their existence, in several instances, to the mutual jealousies of the principal powers.

Ditto, ditto.

Absolute sovereignty.

President and National Assembly, elected by universal
suffrage.

Confederation of Republics, with a supreme diet.

Free State, with Council and Chamber, under British
protection.

A free Pyrenean valley, with council and two syndics.
Free city, with council and convention.

Ditto, with senate and representatives.

Ditto, with senate and legislative assembly.

itto, with senate and common council.

Member of the Germanic Confederation, but without a
vote in the Diet.

194. Civilization.-Knowledge, which formerly had its seat in the southern peninsulas, has during the modern era crossed the Alps, and become conspicuous in the northern nations. The British, French, and Germans, occupy the first rank in mental culture, application to the useful arts, and the various accomplishments of civilization. The Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, and Portuguese, have severally held the position, but have declined. In agriculture, manufactures, commerce, literature, science, and the ordinary arts of life, Europe is generally far in advance of all other regions of the globe. The number of public libraries is 385, of which 107 are in France, 48 in the Austrian empire, 44 in the Prussian states, 28 in Great Britain and Ireland, 17 in Spain, 15 in the Papal states, 14 in Belgium, 13 in Switzerland, 12 in Russia, 17 in Bavaria, 9 in Tuscany, 9 in Sardinia, 8 in Sweden, 7 in Naples, 7 in Portugal, 5 in Holland, 5 in Denmark, 6 in Saxony, 4 in Baden, 4 in Hesse, 3 in Wirtemberg, and 3 in Hanover. The present average number of volumes annually added to the Royal Library at Paris is stated to be 12,000; to that of Munich, 10,000; to that of Berlin, 5,000; to that of Vienna, 5,000; to that of Petersburg, 2,000; to the Ducal Library of Parma, 1,800; to the Royal Library of Copenhagen, 1,000; and to the library of the British Museum, 30,000.

The libraries of Paris, Madrid, Berlin, Munich, Vienna, Copenhagen, Brussels, Naples, Milan, the Hague, Florence, Parma, and London, have a right conferred by law, to copies of all the works published in the country.

195. Religion.-Europe favourably contrasts with the other great divisions of the globe in its religious aspect, but