Their påler faces where the hedgerows 'Twas but a hasty word,

What though he paused not before our Ah! yet press on, though with a fainting

From The Fortnightly Review.
THE COLLEGE OF FRANCE.

THERE are men in all times who have an intuition of human progress, who are able to single out the commencement of the right path among the numberless roads of error. Of such men consisted the little band of scholars who at the beginning of the sixteenth century were the pioneers of an institution which now occupies a unique position in the world.

To appreciate the difficulties with which these men had to contend and to form a correct idea of the genesis of the movement, it is necessary to glance at the conditions of the times.

papal authority, both at the college Sapienza and at the school of young Greek, which Leo X. himself instituted. Long before also, under Clement V., the Council of Vienne had decreed the creation of chairs of Oriental languages which, however, were never instituted, probably from the difficulty of finding occupants in the early part of the fourteenth century. The Paris professors were content to remain inactive without making any attempt to follow such good examples, and when Francis I. began to reign, their ignorance of Greek and Hebrew was very great. Of Homer, Eschylus, and Sophocles they knew nothing, but Aristotle was known to them by Latin translations, and his system of philosophy, being recognized as harmless by the faculty of theology,

of

The College of France had its birth at that critical period when Europe was awakening to the new life of the Renaissance. The cumbersome parapher- constituted their chief pride, although nalia of the scholastic methods was they knew it indifferently and exbecoming inadequate to meet the intel- pounded it badly. Aristotle was રી lectual wants of France. The famous tradition, and for two centuries no trivium of the Schoolmen, with its degrees had been granted by the unilimited trinity of subjects, was proving versity to those who had not made itself too artificial to remain unchal- themselves proficient in the pyavov — lenged. It had served too long as a the only portion of Aristotle's works cloak for ignorance and empiricism; with which they were familiar. The fresh light was needed and independent profession of teaching had become scholarship was ready to offer it. The crowded with men whose attainments university which for three centuries were no longer worthy to command the previously had attracted students from high emoluments which they exacted every part of the Continent when learn- for an unnecessarily long course ing was in clerical hands, was beginning studies. Many of them confined their to lose its reputation. Its doctors no labors to presiding at public competilonger attracted the immense audiences tions, deputing the work of tuition to of their predecessors, for their teaching badly paid subordinates, while they led had grown obsolete, and the students of a life of ease in ermine-trimmed gowns the period sought newer modes of and in the enjoyment of many privithought and wider fields of search. leges. Towards the Papal See they beThe different colleges of the university haved almost with indifference, and being governed by the Sorbonne, no innovations could take place in them without its sanction, and the prestige of their ancient fame had made the Sorbonnists extremely arrogant as well as heedless of the changes which were taking place in other countries. They were, indeed, less enterprising than the popes, for notwithstanding all that has been said of the part played by the papacy in the Renaissance, it is undeniable that Greek and Oriental languages were being taught at Rome by

when the Concordate was entered into between Leo X. and the king, they refused to recognize it. Their allegiance to the pontiff was confined to matters of doctrine, and they were unwilling to extend it to any change which affected

1 "Videre est anno 1517 Academiam Parisiensem libertatibus ecclesiæ gallicanæ maxime addictam, summis viribus eniti, ut articuli de clero clerique disciplina inter Franciscum et Leonem X nuper compositi quod Concordatum nuncupant, supremæ curiæ auctoritate neque approbentur neque promulgentur." -Jourdain, Index chronologious chartarum.

their material interests, preferring to remain entrenched behind a formidable array of special charters which had been lavished upon them by popes and kings for centuries. I have not found that a careful perusal of all their pompous Latinity leads to any other conclusion than that the chief aim of the university from the beginning of the sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth century was to guard its privileges as jealously as possible and to fiercely oppose all who in any way interfered with its prerogatives, whether Jesuits, Lutherans, heretics, or innovators.

ever, just to him to notice that from one motive or another he did not regret the proposal and he did it the honor of reflecting upon it for ten years.

The idea had taken root in the minds of men possessed of more tenacity than the irresolute monarch-men who knew the necessities of the times and the inferiority of what the university had to offer to meet them. They never wearied until, in 1530, the king was induced to appoint four professors, whom he chose without reference to their university degrees, for some had none, but for the special knowledge they were This then was the declining state of known to possess of Greek, Oriental the University of Paris when Budé, the languages, and mathematics. He called king's librarian, principally seconded by this nucleus of the greater college, Etienne Poucher, the archbishop, who which he hoped to found some day, by seems to have been more liberal-minded various names, amongst which were than his colleagues, called the attention "Royal readers," "Royal interpretof Francis to the college, which had ers,' ," "King's readers in the University recently been established at Louvain of Paris," and there was even a " Greek under the patronage of the great Eras-writer" attached to his person, though mus, for the purpose of teaching by what his functions were it is difficult to more perfect methods than had hitherto say. been known, even in the Low Countries - Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.1 The king was generally as ready to adopt a new idea as he was to tire of it after he had adopted it; but he was anxious to be known as a patron of learning and he took an interest in the subject, promising his aid in the foundation of a similar college in Paris.

Numerous overtures had been made to Erasmus to undertake the rectorship, but he was either too highly paid by Charles V. or too well informed of the emptiness of the French treasury. He hesitated for a long time and then finally declined when he saw the progress of the Reformation and the increasing hostility of the Sorbonne. In the strict sense of the word, the newly appointed professors were peripatetic, for no house was assigned to them. They were obliged to deliver their lectures in hospitable colleges and, in some instances, at street corners fact which has been humorously alluded to by Rabelais, whose satires are perhaps the best commentaries on the manners of the times. The tuition they offered was entirely gratuitous. There were no fees, no college discipline; all that was required from the

But amid the difficulties of the times, in the disastrous state of the finances caused by the Italian war, his acts were not always in accordance with his wishes; in fact, they often took a very opposite direction, and, if the portrait which Michelet gives of him be true, he was utterly wanting in the strength of purpose required for the pursuance of such a scheme as the new college which, after all, he seemed only to have wished for in a timid, half-hearted way. He was frightened, also, at the rapid strides which the Reformation was taking, and did not venture to aid it by a too open recognition of liberal studies, notwithstanding all the promises he made by acts and charters. It is, how-sept cents soixante et quatre.

1 Le Collége des Trois Langues.

a

"Pantagruel bien records des lettres et admonitions de son père, voulut un jour essayer son sçavoir, De faict, par touts les carrefours de la ville mist conclusions, en nombre de neuf mille Et première

ment en la rue du Feurre tint contre touts les régents, artiens et orateurs et les mist touts de cul."-Pantagruel, Ch. x.

of knowledge then in vogue. Paradis, a converted Italian Jew, was also known in society; he taught Greek and Hebrew, and Marguerite d'Angoulême was one of his pupils. Oronce Finé

students was a display of zeal and free- | man of the world who had been at great dom from absolute poverty. From the pains to acquire the encyclopædic kind very commencement the Sorbonnists, as the heads of the university, denounced the system as scandalous and heretical, for it not only brought to light, by comparison, the deficiencies of their teaching, but it also tended to was an unobtrusive mathematician, draw away from them the pupils by whose fees they thrived. They begrudged the professors their salaries, which they seemed to consider an alienated portion of their rights. In this last respect the danger was more apparent than real, for numerous letters among the archives exist to show that the king was in the habit of paying, by orders on the treasury, which were of so little value that several of the royal readers lived in penury or sought assistance from their friends and relatives, while one of them was bbliged to discontinue his vocation for want of the means of subsistence.1 Danes, one of the best of the early professors, was obliged to suspend his lectures, being literally menaced with

starvation.

while Guidacerius and Postel were Orientalists of merit. These were the men who were bold enough one day to issue public notices that on a certain date and at a certain hour they would interpret the Psalms in the Hebrew text or comment upon the Proverbs of Solomon. Here was the opportunity which the Sorbonne longed for. It caused the notices to be torn from the walls, and Noël Beda petitioned the Parliament, demanding that the royal readers should be prohibited from explaining any portions of the Scriptures until they had first obtained the permission of the faculty of theology. The Sorbonnists affected to think that the vulgate itself was in danger, but the advocate who defended the professors so successfully attacked and proved the ignorance of the academicians, that the court rendered a colorless judgment which left the king's readers free to continue their lectures. Subsequently, however, when the placards became too

Yet because they were the champions of progress and reason was on their side, their lectures were followed by the Lighest ranks of a society which was especially fond of learning and not slow to recognize originality and excel-numerous and the chairs of the Sorlence of method. Among them there cannot be said to have been any very striking personalities, and it is unnecessary to give their biographies. For the present purpose a few indications will suffice. Vatable, who taught Hebrew, was a temperate, meditative man who seemed destined for a monastery. Calvin and Ramus were his pupils. Danes the Hellenist, was, on the contrary, a

1 The termination of a letter from Tusanus and Vatable to Monseigneur du Bellay shows this

clearly. After referring to some of the more fortunate professors who had friends at court, and had, therefore, succeeded in being paid, it says: "Nos, qui non lenioribus, ut lenissime dicamus, docendi laboribus assidue conflictamur, præteriti,

bonne were deserted for those of the professors, the king intervened in favor of the older institution, and the nascent college was neglected for a long period by both king and Parliament, confronted as they were by such questions as the dissensions in the royal family, the foreign wars, and the spread of Calvinism. Then came the king's captivity in Spain, during which the lectures were entirely suspended.

This was the first stage of the movement, but a new era commenced with the appearance on the scene of a man who had been a pupil of the readers, but who had distanced all his masters. interim fame premimur, Johanni Stracelio This man was Ramus, to whom M. collega nostro jam ut necesse fuit, ad tempus Charles Waddington devoted an admiintermissis prælectionibus, in patriam se, ad cor- rable monograph some years ago. Rarogandum & suis, qua pie utatur, pecuniam conferre quam contumeliam, non ejus privatum sed Gallimus, by his genius and lucidity, gave totius communem nemo est qui non existimet." the real impulsion, and yet Francis,

ea

ordered honest salaries and a few privileges to be allowed to the professors who taught them. But the stipends were never regularly paid, and the royal linguists continued to work chiefly for the honor of their profession.

with all his pretended culture, was un- | three languages in public, and that as able to discern his merit. He had those languages were now, thanks to passed through the university with him, in a flourishing condition, he had distinction, but when he took his degree the thesis he chose was a violent attack on the doctrines of Aristotle, which, as I have said, were, in a crystallized form, the great subject of the university. The doctors of the Sorbonne were dismayed at his boldness, The opportunity which Ramus awaitbut he spoke with so much good sense ed came a few years after Henry II. and so convincingly that his oration was had succeeded to the "Chevalier King." received with the greatest favor by his He was appointed to a chair of philosaudience. He then resolved to study ophy - -a subject he had been prohibthe less known writings of Aristotle ited from teaching since his trial- and which were not included in the six he came back into the arena with fresh books of the "Organon," and the fruits vigor and even more advanced opinof his investigations were two books ions. "I will not stop," he said, "until published in 1543, entitled "Institu- I have delivered logic from the darktiones Dialectica" and "Animadversi-ness of Aristotle." He was now able ones in Dialecticum Aristotelis." From to make known the result of all his the moment of their appearance there researches and classifications. His revwas trouble in the academic halls, and elations of unsuspected things astonthe discussions they excited were long ished the whole of literary Paris and and acrimonious. It seems incredible made him very popular. In his enthusito-day that a hostile criticism of a Greek asm he dealt heavy blows at accepted writer's works should be the cause of ideas, and did not pause to reflect that litigation, and yet Ramus was forced to old institutions which have once renundergo a trial for it. Before the court dered good service have still a claim to he treated all the narrow arguments of be treated with respect even when they the Sorbonnists with contempt, and he have become obsolete. To Aristotle he puzzled his judges by quoting the re- suddenly opposed Socrates, and loudly marks of Cicero and Quintilian on proclaimed that the latter was the true Aristotle. He was too erudite for his philosopher. Here was a heresy inaccusers, and they were obliged to con- deed! Who at that period had ever tent themselves with a "remonstrance" heard of the philosophy of Socrates? which they succeeded in obtaining What had he written? Nothing! Some against him. Being now precluded of the Sorbounists had heard of him from teaching conscientiously, he ap- through Plato, but when Ramus dared plied himself to private study in his to say that he was superior to Aristotle, College of Presles, waiting until an the indignation of the university reached opportunity should arise of coming for- its climax, and the rectors, Charpentier ward as an educational reformer. Up and Galland, being unable to coerce to his death Francis had been unable to Ramus while he enjoyed the king's discover any funds with which to endow protection, wrote pamphlets against him his college. A short time previously, couched in abusive language according however, his conscience seems to have to the fashion of the times. He took reproached him, for he granted a char- no notice of them, but continued his ter in which he informed all whom it austere life of research, devoting an might concern that the knowledge of hour daily to his lecture. Routine had languages being a gift of the Holy grown to be a law. The pronunciation Spirit, he had already appointed a cer- of Latin was governed by the strictest tain number of persons to teach the and most grotesque rules, and it is amusing to think that it required all the efforts of the royal professors to rescue

1 Personnaiges.