It has not been ascertained that this Prayer Book ever received the sanction of Convocation, and it probably never came into complete use. Such use was in any case short-lived, for Edward VI. died on July 6, 1553, and the English Prayer Book was abolished and the Latin missal restored to use by one of the first Acts of Queen Mary, in October 1553. Queen Mary died on November 17, 1558, and another complete change of policy took place. The reformed Prayer Book was brought into use again on June 24, 1559, not in the exact shape which it bore in 1552, but with various modifications, which we forbear to enumerate in detail. It may be said of them, as of the various alterations introduced subsequently into the Prayer Book, that their general tendency was conservative rather than destructive, and in a Catholic rather than in a Protestant direction. The next importent revisions of the Prayer Book took place in 1604, under James I., after the Hampton Court Conference, and in 1661-62, after the restoration of Charles II. The Book of Common Prayer had been abolished under the Commonwealth, and it could only be used under the risk of heavy penalties from 1645 to 1661. It was now restored with a considerable number of additions and alterations, after having been discussed without any satisfactory result between churchmen and Puritans at the Savoy conference in 1661. When these had received the sanction of the Convocations of Canterbury and York, it was attached to an Act of Uniformity which received the royal assent on May 19, 1662, by the provisions of which Act it came into general use on St Bartholomew's Day, August 24, 1662. Since that date, although various slight changes have been made in recent years, nothing has been done amounting to a revision or new edition of the Prayer Book, or demanding notice in these columns.

A few words are added about other national versions of the reformed liturgy.

The Liturgy of the Scottish Episcopal Church. This liturgy in nearly its present form was compiled by Scottish bishops in 1636, and imposed, or, to speak more accurately, attempted to be imposed upon the Scottish people by the royal authority of Charles I. in 1637. The prelates chiefly concerned in it were Spottiswood, bishop of Glasgow; Maxwell, bishop of Ross; Wedderburn, bishop of Dunblane; and Forbes, bishop of Edinburgh. Their work was approved and revised by certain members of the English episcopate, especially Laud, archbishop of Canterbury; Juxon, bishop of London; and Wren, bishop of Norwich. This liturgy has met with varied fortune, and passed through several editions. It is now used as an alternative form with the English communion office in the Scottish Episcopal Church.

Among its more noteworthy features are-(a) the retention in its integrity and in its primitive position after the words of institu tion, of the invocation of the Holy Spirit ; (b) the reservation of the sacrament is permitted for the purpose of communicating the absent or the sick; (c) the mixed chalice is explicitly ordered; (d) the minimum number of communicants is fixed at one or two, instead of three or four. The general arrangement of the parts approximates more closely to the First Prayer Book of Edward VI. than to the present Anglican Book of Common Prayer.

The American Liturgy.-The Prayer Book of the "Protestant Episcopal Church" in America was adopted by the General Convention of the American Church held in 1789. It is substantially the same as the English Book of Common Prayer, but among the more important variations we may

1 The present clause runs thus:-" And we most humbly beseech thee O merciful Father to hear us, and of Thy almighty goodness vouchsafe to bless and sanctify with Thy word and Holy Spirit these and Thy gifts and creatures of Bread and Wine, that they may become the Body and Blood of Thy most dearly-beloved Son.' This petition is found in the Eastern but not in the Roman or Anglican liturgies.

name the following:-(a) the arrangement and wording of the communion office rather resembles that of the Scottish than of the Anglican liturgy, especially in the position of the oblation and invocation immediately after the words of institution; (b) the Magnificat, Nunc Dimittis, and Athanasian creed are disused; (c) ten selections of psalms are appointed to be used as alternatives for the psalms of the day. In addition to these there are various verbal and other unimportant alterations.

The Irish Prayer Book.-The Prayer Book in use in the Irish portion of the United Church of England and Ireland was the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, but after the disestablishment of the Irish Church several changes were introduced into it by a synod held in Dublin in 1870. These changes included (a) the excision of all lessons from the Apocrypha, (b) of the rubric ordering the recitation of the Athanasian creed, (c) of the rubric ordering the vestments of the second year of Edward VI., (d) of the form of absolution in the office for the visitation of the sick, (e) the addition of one question and answer in the Church Catechism, bringing out more clearly the spiritual character of the real presence.

The Presbyterian Church.-The Presbyterian churches. of Scotland at present possess no liturgy properly so called. Certain general rules for the conduct of divine service are contained in the " Directory for the Public Worship of God," agreed upon by the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, with the assistance of commissioners from the Church of Scotland, approved and established by an Act of the General Assembly, and by an Act of Parliament, both in 1645. In 1554 John Knox had drawn up an order of liturgy, closely modelled on the Genevan pattern, for the use of the English congregation to which he was then ministering at Frankfort. On his return to Scotland this form of liturgy was adopted by an Act of the General Assembly in 1560, and became the established form of worship in the Presbyterian Church, until the year 1645, when the Directory of Public Worship took its place. Herein regulations are laid down for the conduct of public worship, for the reading of Scripture, and for extempore prayer before and after the sermon and in the administration of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's supper, for the solemnization of marriage, visitation of the sick, and burial of the dead, for the observance of days of public fasting and public thanksgiving, together with a form of ordination, and a directory for family worship. In all these cases, although the general tenor of the prayer is frequently indicated, the wording of it is left to the discretion of the minister, with these exceptions:-at the act of baptism this formula must be used-"I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost;" and for the Lord's Supper these forms are suggested, but with liberty to the minister to use "other the like, used by Christ or his apostle upon this occasion: "

According to the holy institution, command, and example of our blessed Saviour Jesus Christ, I take this bread, and, having given thanks, break it, and give it unto you. Take ye, eat ye; this is the body of Christ which is broken for you; do this in remembrance of him." And again; "According to the institution, command, and example of our Lord Jesus Christ, I take this cup and give it unto you; this cup is the New Testament in the blood of Christ, which is shed for the remission of the sins of many; drink ye all of it."

There is also an unvarying form of words directed to be used before the minister by the man to the woman and by the woman to the man in the case of the solemnization of matrimony. The form of words on all other occasions, including ordination, is left to the discretion of the officiating minister, or of the presbytery.

Continental Protestant Churches. The Calvinistic Churches.Rather more of the liturgical element, in the shape of a set form of

words, enters into the service of the French and German Calvinistic Protestants. The Sunday morning service, as drawn up by Calvin, was to open with a portion of Holy Scripture and the recitation of the Ten Commandments. Afterwards the minister, inviting the people to accompany him, proceeded to a confession of sins and supplication for grace. Then one of the Psalms of David was sung. Then came the sermon, prefaced by an extempore prayer and concluding with the Lord's Prayer, creed, and benediction. The communion service began with an exhortation leading up to the apostles' creed; then followed a long exhortation, after which the bread and cup were distributed to the people, who advanced in reverence and order, while a Psalm was being sung or a suitable passage of Scripture was being read. After all had communicated a set form of thanksgiving was said by the minister. Then the hymn of Simeon was sung by the congregation, who were then dismissed with the blessing. This form of service has been modified in various ways from time to time, but it remains substantially the type of service in use among the Reformed Churches of Germany, Switzerland, and France. The Lutheran Church.-Luther was far more conservative than the rest of the Protestant Reformers, and his conservatism appeared nowhere more than in the service books which he drew up for the use of the church which bears his name. In 1523 he published a treatise Of the Order of the Service in the Congregation, and in 1526 he published the German Mass. Except that the vernacular was substituted for the Latin language, the old framework and order of the Roman missal were closely followed, beginning with the Confiteor, Introit, Kyrie Eleison, Gloria in Excelsis, &c. The text of this and other Lutheran services is given in Agende für christliche Gemeinden des lutherischen Bekenntnisses, Nördlingen, 1853. At the same time Luther was tolerant, and expressed a hope that different portions of the Lutheran Church would from time to time make such changes or adaptations in the order of service as might be found convenient. The Lutheran Churches of northern Europe have not been slow to avail themselves of this advice and permission. Most of them have drawn up liturgies for themselves, sometimes following very closely, sometimes differing considerably from the original service composed by Luther himself. In 1822, on the union of the Lutheran and Reformed (Calvinistic) Churches of Prussia, a new liturgy was published at Berlin. It is used in its entirety in the chapel royal, but great liberty as to its use was allowed to the parochial clergy, and considerable variations of text appear in the more recent editions of this service book.

The Swedenborgians, Irvingites, and other Protestant bodies have drawn up liturgies for themselves, but they are hardly of sufficient historical importance to be described at length here.

The Old Catholics, lastly, published a Rituale in 1875 containing the occasional offices for baptism, matrimony, burial, &c., and a form for reception of holy communion, in the German language. The latter is for temporary use in anticipation of a revised and not yet published missal, corresponding to the order of communion in English published March 8, 1548, in anticipation of the complete office in the Prayer Book of 1549. (F. E. W.)

LIUTPRAND (c. 922-972), Italian chronicler, was born towards the beginning of the 10th century, of a good Lombard family. The name is sometimes spelled Liudprand and even Luitprand. In 931 he entered the service of King Hugo of Italy as page; he afterwards rose to a high position at the court of Hugo's successor Berengarius, having become chancellor, and having been sent (949) on an embassy to the Byzantine court. Falling into disgrace with Berengarius, he attached himself to the emperor Otto I., whom in 961 he accompanied into Italy, and by whom in 962 he was made bishop of Cremona. He was frequently employed in missions to the pope, and on two occasions (968, 971) to Byzantium, to negotiate on behalf of the younger Otto (afterwards Otto II.) for the hand of Theophano. Liutprand died in 972.

He wrote (1) Antapodoscos, seu rerum per Europam gestarum, Libri VI., an historical narrative, relating to the events from 887 to 949, compiled, as its name almost implies, with the object of avenging himself upon Berengarius and Willa his queen; (2) Historia Ottonis, unfortunately covering only the years from 960 to 964; and (3) Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana (968-969). All

are to be found in the Monum. Germ. Hist. of Pertz, and in the Rer. Ital. Script. of Muratori; there is a recent edition by Dümmler (1877); and a partial translation into German, with an introduction by Wattenbach, is given in the second volume of the Geschichtschreiber der Deutschen Vorzeit (1853). Compare Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter (3d ed., 1873). Three other works, entitled Adversaria, Chronicon (606-960), and Opusculum de vitis Romanorum pontificum, are usually, but wrongly, assigned to Liutprand.

Port of Liverpool.

slope varying in gradient, but in some districts very steep, Exposed to the western sea breezes, with a dry subsoil and excellent natural drainage, the site is naturally salubrious, but neglect and perverseness have in past times done much to neutralize these advantages. The old borough, lying between the pool and the river, was a conglomeration of narrow alleys and mean houses packed together without any regard to sanitary provisions; and during the 16th and 17th centuries it was several times visited by the plague, which carried off many of the inhabitants. When the town burst its original limits, and expanded up the slopes beyond, a better state of things began to exist. The older parts of the town have at successive periods been entirely taken down and renovated. The streets of shops-Church Street, Bold Street, &c.-are equal in display to similar establishments in London. The commercial part of the city is remarkable for the number of palatial-looking piles of offices, built of hewn stone, principally in the Italian Renaissance style, amongst which the banks and insurance offices stand pre eminent. The

tributed by Mr Joseph Mayer, F.S. A. Sir Andrew Walker erected the art gallery which bears his name at an expense of £35,000. The Picton circular reading-room, and the Rotunda lecture-room were built by the corporation at the cost of £25,000. The library contains nearly 100,000 volumes. An annual exhibition of paintings has been established, the sales from which average about £12,000 per annum. A permanent gallery has also been formed, which is now being enlarged at a cost of about £12,000. The literary and philosophical society was established in 1812, and still flourishes. There are also philomathic, geological, chemical, historic, and various other societies for the cultivation of almost every branch of knowledge and inquiry. An art club has been established with great success, and possesses an excellent club-house and gallery. The royal institution, established by Roscoe in 1817, possesses a fine gallery of early art, and is the centre of the various literary institutions of the town.

Education.-Elementary education has always met with cordial support in Liverpool, and is now carried on with vigour by the school board, supplemented by voluntary schools. For middle class and higher education there have existed for many years three institutions, which have been very successful, viz., the school attached to the royal institution, the collegiate institution in Shaw Street, and the Liverpool institute high school. A further effort has been successfully made resulting in the foundation of University College, the inaugural meeting of which was held on January 14, 1882. This college is affiliated to the Victoria university of the north-west of England. The sum of £135,000 has been raised by voluntary subscription, to which £30,000 have been contributed by the corporation. Seven chairs have been endowed, and professors appointed, and a suitable building has been provided.

Recreation and Social Life.-There are eight theatres, besides many minor music halls and places of amusement. The most fashionable and exclusive is the Philharmonic Hall, which is a large handsome building open only to proprietors, where concerts take place every fortnight during the season. The Philharmonic concerts, and the balls at the Wellington Rooms (the Almacks of Liverpool), afford the principal opportunities for the gatherings of the fashionable world. The Alexandra theatre, the new Court theatre, the Prince of Wales theatre, and Hengler's cirque are all that could be desired in point of decoration and the mise en scene. The minor houses are conducted on the whole with great propriety and success.

Population. According to the census of 1881 (preliminary report) the number of inhabitants within the parliamentary and the municipal borough-the limits of which are conterminous amounted to 552,425 persons, 271,640 being males and 280,785 females. At the end of the 17th century the population of Liverpool was 5145, but since then it has steadily increased as follows:—

If the boroughs of Bootle and Birkenhead, which are component parts of the port, are included, Liverpool has now a population of about three quarters of a million.

Trade and Commerce.-The progress of the commerce of Liverpool during the present century is almost without a parallel. In 1800 the tonnage of ships entering the port was 450,060; in 1880 it reached 7,933,620 tons, In 1800 4746 vessels entered, averaging 94 tons; in 1880 there were 20,249, averaging 440 tons. The only British port which can at all come into competition with Liverpool is London, the total trade of which, comprising exports and imports, amounted in 1880 to 16,479,108 tons, against 14,496,364

in Liverpool. A large proportion of this, however, is a coasting trade, indicated by the smaller size of the ships, averaging 240 tons each in London as compared with 440 tons in Liverpool. The coasting trade in Liverpool has rather fallen off owing to the superior advantages of railway traffic. The proportion of steamers to sailing ships has very largely increased of late years. The return for 1881 gives 5,534,462 tons of steam navigation to 2,379,466 tons in sailing ships. If we take the value of the imports as a criterion, London is far in advance of Liverpool, the values in 1880 being £141,442,907 and £107,460,187, but the London imports consist, to a great extent, of very valuable commodities, such as tea, silk, indigo, wines, &c., whilst the Liverpool imports principally consist of grain, food, and raw produce, the materials for manufacture. If we look at the exports the balance is reversed, Liverpool, in 1880, having exported the value of £84,029,651, against £52,600,929 from London. In the number of ships registered as belonging to the port, Liverpool stands first in the world, 1,120,359 in London, and 1,005,894 in the whole of the ports on the tonnage belonging to Liverpool being 1,554,871, against the Clyde.

The commerce of Liverpool extends to every part of the world, but probably the intercourse with America stands pre-eminent, there being five lines of steamers to New York alone, besides lines to Philadelphia, Boston, Halifax, Canada, New Orleans, &c. size of the ships has greatly increased, having reached 8000 tons burden, with 10,000 horse-power.

The

The imports into Liverpool comprise produce of every description from every region under the sun. Cotton, however, is the great staple, almost the whole trade of the commodity centring here. Grain comes next, American and Australian corn occupying a large proportion of the market. Within the last few years an enormous trade in American provisions, including live cattle, has sprung up. Tobacco has always been a leading article of import into Liverpool, along with the sugar and rum from the West Indies. Timber, principally from Canada, forms an important part of the imports, the stacking yards extending for miles along the northern docks. At one time tea from China, and wool from Australia, promised to London have drawn these trades almost entirely away. In regard be imported with advantage, but the financial arrangements with to to exports, Liverpool possesses decided advantages; lying so near the great manufacturing districts of Lancashire and the West Riding of Yorkshire, this port is the natural channel of transmission for their goods, and, if everything else fails, there are always coal and salt from Wales and Cheshire ready to make up a cargo. The consequence is that many ships, after discharging their homeward cargoes at London and the eastern ports, come round in ballast to Liverpool for an outward cargo.

Manufactures.-The manufactures of Liverpool are not extensive. Attempts have been repeatedly made to establish cotton-mills in and near the city, but have resulted in uniform failure. Engineering works, especially as connected with marine navigation, have naturally grown up, and have been carried on successfully on a large scale. Shipbuilding, in the days of the old wooden walls, in the early part of the present century, was active and prosperous, several frigates and sloops-of-war for Government having been built here, but the keen competition of the Clyde and the north of England drew away a large portion of the trade. There are now four shipbuilding establishments on the Mersey. In the year 1880-81 there were launched from these yards thirty-three iron ships, with a tonnage of 53,971 tons. At one period the soap manufacture filled a large space in the industry of Liverpool, but it has almost entirely departed. During the latter half of last cen tury and the beginning of the present, the pottery and china manufacturer, was the inventor of printing on pottery, and during the facture flourished in Liverpool. John Sadler, a Liverpool manuearly period of Josiah Wedgwood's career, all his goods which required printing had to be sent to Liverpool. A large establishment, called the Herculaneum Pottery, was founded in a suburb on the bank of the Mersey, and was carried on with success for many years, but the whole trade has long disappeared. One manufacture, established at an early period, still continues to flourish—the watch and chronometer trade. Litherland, the inventor of the lever watch, was a Liverpool manufacturer, and Liverpool-made watches have always been held in high estimation. There are several extensive sugar refineries, and two large tobacco manufactories.

Docks.-The docks of Liverpool on both sides of the Mersey are under the same trust and management, and equally form part of the port of Liverpool. On the Liverpool side they extend along the margin of the estuary 6 miles, of which 14 miles is in the borough of Bootle. The Birkenhead docks have not such a frontage, but they extend a long way backward. The water area of the Liverpool docks and basins is 3334 acres, with a lineal quayage of 22 miles. The Birkenhead docks, including the great float of 120 acres, contain a water area of 160 acres, with a lineal quayage of 9 miles. The system of floating docks was commenced by the corpor ation in 1709. With the advancing demands of commerce the docks were extended north and south. They constituted from the