several distinct allusions to the kingdom of Judah." The pseudo Epiphanius says he was of the tribe of Reuben." We know nothing further respecting him. Even his age is uncertain. Jahn and others place him in the time of Manasseh; Eckermann, under Josiah; and Schröder, with others, after the destruction of the Jewish state. We cannot determine his age from the plague of locusts and the drought of which he prophesies. The language proves nothing. The age can be determined only by his references to the political state of the nation. These lead us to a time when neither the Syrians nor the Assyrians were hostile to Judah; but the Phoenicians and the Philistines, (iv. 4,) the Egyptians and the Edomites, alone (iv. 19) had shown themselves their enemies. Consequently, Joel seems to have been an elder contemporary of Amos. This appears from the similarity of their language. (Compare iv. 4, 19, with Interpretatio Joelis in Turretini Tract. de sac. Script. Interpret. ed. a Guil. A. Teller, p. 307-343. Sigm. Jac. Baumgarten, Auslegung des Propheten Joel; Hal. 1756, 4to. C. F. Cramer, Scythische Denkmäler in Palästina; Kiel, 1777, p. 143 -245. C. Ph. Conz, Diss. de Charactere poetico Joelis, cum Animadverss. philol. crit.; Tub. 1783, 4to. Joel Vates olim Hebræus, Cura Joa. Büttneri; Cob. 1784. Joel Latine versus et Notis philol. illustratus ab A. Svanborg in sex Dissertatt.; Upsal. 1806, 4to. Translated, with explanations, by Eckermann, 1786; Justi, 1792; Holzhausen, 1829; Credner, 1831. a Chap. i. 14, ii. 1, 15, iii. 5, iv. 1, 2, 6, 16, 17, 20, 21. De Vit. Proph. c. xiv. Kimchi supposes the famine alluded to is that mentioned in 2 Kings viii. 1. See Eckermann's version, p. 49, and compare Jer. xiv. 1. See Carpzov, p. 310, and Bertholdt, p. 1604, Knobel, p. 135, sqq., Credner, p. 55, sq. Amos i. 9, 11.) He seems to have prophesied under Uzziah," about 810 B. C. § 231. CONTENTS AND SPIRIT OF THE PROPHECY. The distress produced by the extraordinary devastations of swarms of locusts, accompanied with a drought, gave Joel occasion to admonish his nation to repent. By their repentance, he says, not only will abundance return, but a golden age will be introduced, in which the theocracy shall be triumphant, and exert a more inspiring influence. a The Chaldee interpreter, Ephraim Syrus, Jerome, Abarbanel, Vitringa, (Typus Doct. Proph. c. iv. p. 35, sqq.,) Rosenmüller, Von Cölln, (De Joel. Ætate; 1811,) Holzhausen, (l. c. p. 17,) Eichhorn, (§ 559,) and Knobel, (§ 15,) are of this opinion. On the other hand, Credner (1. c. p. 41, sqq.) places him in the first period of Jehoash, 870-865 B. C. He is led to this conclusion by the fact that the pretended incursion of the Syrians, mentioned in 1 Kings xii. 17, is not spoken of in Joel; (but this was only a feint, which has been exaggerated in 2 Ch. xxiv. 23, sqq. Amos i. 3, does not mention it. Knobel, vol. ii. p. 139;) by the hostile positions of the Edomites, which is presupposed in iv. 19, (but see Amos i. 11, sqq. ;) and on account of the condition of the law here presupposed. Such is the opinion of · Winer, (Lexicon,) Krahmer, (De Joel. Ætate; 1837,) Movers, (Chronik, p. 119, sqq.,) and Hitzig. In support of this, some maintain there is in iv. 4—6, 17, a reference to the pretended conquest of Jerusalem, by the Philistines, under Jehoram. (2 Ch. xxi. 16.) Others place him still lower - Hengstenberg, (Christol. vol. i. pt. i. p. 209,) in the time of Micah; Bertholdt and Steudel, (Bengel, Archiv. vol. ii. p. 234,) in that of Hezekiah; Eckermann, in that of Josiah; Jahn, under Manasseh; and Schröder, at the end of the Jewish state. Chap. iv. 1, 2, taken by itself, speaks in favor of the Assyrian, or rather Chaldee period, (Eckermann, p. 44, Bertholdt, p. 1604,) but not in connection with the rest. Jerome's maxim is false. Prol. in XII. Proph. min.: In quibus (Proph. script.) tempus non profertur in titulo, sub illis eos regibus prophetasse, sub quibus et hi, qui ante eos habent titulos, prophetarunt. whom Bertholdt and maintain that the Abarbanel, Grotius, and others, Theiner have recently followed, book must be explained as an allegory, [the locusts representing hostile armies.] But this view is contrary to all the analogy of Hebrew prophecy. It has been opposed by Justi and Rosenmüller, while Holzhausen takes a middle course. There are some passages which refer to political events, (ii. 17, 20, iii. iv.,) but they agree very well with the common method of interpreting them. Credner thinks Joel prophesied after this plague of the locusts had taken place. He supposes (ii. 10) "The earth quaketh before them, the heavens tremble," refers to a thunder-storm, and puts verse 18, "Then will Jehovah be zealous for his land, and pity his people," in the preterit tense. But all this is contrary to analogy, and not demanded by the rules of grammar. Chap. ii. 20, which predicts the removal and destruction of the locusts, must, with his view, be treated contrary to the spirit of the parallelism, and rendered highly artificial. The prophet's discourse is to be praised as much on account of his classic language, as for his blooming, rich, and yet finished style, and his regular, measured rhythm. Notwithstanding his national and sacerdotal limitations, his thoughts are liberal and magnanimous. The prophecy, ii. 28-32, has become important from the fulfil-' ment in Acts ii. 16. See Eichhorn, Allg. Bib. vol. iv. p. 3, and Justï's version of Joel, p. 39, sqy. yet Joel is cautious in his use of tenses, and if these passages are read in the future, they appear hard and unsuitable.] III. AMOS." § 232. HIS LIFE AND TIMES. Amos was a shepherd of Tekoah. But we are not on this account to suppose he was a poor and rude man, though he was simple and unlearned. (vii. 14.) The historical information he sometimes affords (ii. 9, v. 26, vi. 2, viii. 8, ix. 7) does not prove him a learned man. He prophesied in the time of Uzziah and Jeroboam II., in the latter part of Jeroboam's reign, (i. 1, vii. 10— 14; compare 2 Kings xiv. 25,) about 790 B. C. The contents of his oracles agree with this date." The kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam regained its Jo. Gerhardi Adnotatt. posth. in Proph. Amos. et Jon. (with his Adnotatt. in Psalm. quinque priores ;) Jen. 1663, and 1676, 4to. Amos Proph. expositus, interpret. Latina...... ampliss. Commentario...... illustratus, &c. Cur. atque Stud. J. Chr. Harenberg; Lug. Bat. 1763, 4to. L. Jos. Uhland, Annotatt. ad Loca quædam Amosi imprimis historica; Tub. 1779, 1780, 4to. Amos übers. u. erl., mit Beiftig. d. hebr. Textes u. d. griech. der Septuaginta, nebst Anmerkk. zu letzterem, herausgeg. von J. S. Vater; Halle, 1810, 4to.; also with title, Oracula Amosi. Textum et Hebr. et Gr. Versionis Alexandrinæ Notis crit. et exeg. instruxit adjunctaque Vers. vern. edidit...... Translated and explained by J. E. W. Dahl, Gött. 1795, and Justi, 1799. The date of the earthquake refers indefinitely to Uzziah's time; Zechariah (xiv. 5) mentions it. Credner (p. 85) has combined i. 6-8, with 2 Ch. xxvi. 6; but this combination is very uncertain. The date in Joseph. (Ant. ix. 10, 4,) and in Jerome, (ad Am. i. 1.) is fictitious. Chap. vi. 2, refers to the fall of Gath, (comp. 2 Ch. xxvi. 6, or 2 Kings xii. 18:) this city is not mentioned in i. 6-8. Chap. i. 3, (see Hitzig, in loc.,) refers to the depopulation of Gilead by the Syrians. (2 Kings x. 32.) In respect to the contemporaneity of Uzziah and Jeroboam II., there is a difference of 12 years between 2 Kings xv. 1, and xiv. 23, 17. The latter is probably correct, and Uzziah came to the throne in the 15th year of Jeroboam II. See Dahl's translation, p. 6, 7. [§ 233. ancient limits; for, in vi. 13, the Israelites say, "Have we not acquired dominion?" (Comp. 2 Kings xiv. 25.) But yet their careless arrogance, (vi. 1, 13,) their luxury, (iii. 12, 15, vi. 4, sqq.,) and their injustice, (ii. 6, sqq., iii. 9, sqq., iv. 1, v. 7, 10,) led to the destruction of the kingdom, which the prophet had foretold. (viii. 2.) The prophet only alludes obscurely to the supremacy of Assyria-"Therefore will I cause you to go into captivity beyond Damascus, saith Jehovah." (v. 27, vi. 14.) He appeared at Beth-el in his character of prophet, and was opposed by the priests of that place." (vii. 10, sqq.) § 233. CONTENTS OF HIS PROPHECIES. In the first two chapters Amos chides and menaces all nations and kingdoms that were known to him. In the following chapters he applies himself to Israel alone, and speaks boldly of its transgressions and approaching destruction. Chap. i. ii. and iii.—vi. form each a whole, and are all purely rhetorical. Chap. vii.—ix. is symbolical, but it contains explanations, and an historical account that has been interpolated. (vii. 10—17.) All the single passages probably belong to the same period, and were written by the prophet in their present order, according to a plan he had devised. An artificial arrangement is obvious in vii.—ix. a b See the apocryphal account of his death in pseudo Epiphanius, ch xii., and Carpzov, p. 319. This is Eichhorn's and Hitzig's opinion; but Dahl and Bertholdt differ therefrom, and think part of these prophecies were impromptus, and the rest had been meditated before they were uttered. It is more just to consider them all as oracles, at first uttered orally, and afterwards written down |