without labour, both to the body and the mind of the prisoners, has not been limited to the Auburn Prison. The Penitentiaries of Maryland, Maine, Virginia, and New-Jersey, in their experiments of this kind, have not exhibited happier results. In the latter prison, ten persons are mentioned as having been killed by solitary confinement."* 149. Relation of the social principle to civil society. It is on such considerations that we maintain the principle which has now been the subject of examination, to be connatural to the human mind. If men are frequently found in a state of contention, jealous of each other's advancement, and seeking each other's injury, we are not to regard this as their natural position, but rather as the result, in many cases at least, of misapprehension. If they understood, in every case, the relative position of those with whom they contend, and especially if they were free from all unfavourable influences from those who happen to be placed in positions of authority, the great mass of mankind would find the principle of sociality successfully asserting its claims against those causes of repulsion and strife which, for various reasons, too often exist. In concluding this subject, we may properly revert a moment to the strange notion of Hobbes, and those who think with him, that man is kept in society only by the fear of what he significantly calls the Leviathan; that is to say, of Civil Society in the exercise of force. These writers give us to understand that it is the chain, the sword, and the fagot which sustain the uniformity of the social position. We have no doubt that civil Government, in its proper administration, has a favourable effect, even in the exercise of force. But, at the same time, it is a great and important fact, that Civil Society has a different, and, in all respects, a better foundation than this. It is based on the constitution of the mind itself, on the unfailing operations of the social principle. It is true that the tendencies of this principle are sometimes temporarily annulled by counteracting and adverse influen * Lieber's Translation of Beaumont and Tocqueville's Penitentiary System of the United States, p. 5, 51, 151, 188. ces; but the principle itself is never, in a sound mind, perfectly extinguished. There is philosophical truth, as well as poetical beauty, in the well-known expressions of Cowper. "Man in society is like a flower Blown in his native bed; 'tis there alone 150. Of the form of desire denominated hope. Before leaving the Propensities, and ascending, in the gradation of the Desiring or Desirous Sensibilities, to the still higher class of the Affections, we may delay a moment upon a state of mind which, although we may not have authority to give it a distinct place, has a name in every language, and perhaps we may add with strict truth, a residence in every breast. We refer to the state of mind denominated Hope, which does not appear to be a distinct form of desire separate from every other, but rather a modification of all its forms. When the desire, whether it appear in the form of a propensity, or an affection, or in any other possible shape, is attended with a belief of the attainment of the object towards which it is directed, it is generally accompanied, in consequence of this belief, with a pleasant emotion. The effect of this collateral or accessory emotion is to stimulate the action of the desire, whose success it anticipates, and to diffuse over it a portion of its own glow of happiness. Of course, this pleasurable emotion will be greater or less, according as there is a greater or less probability of the object being attained. When the probability is small, the emotion of pleasure is weak; when it is great, the pleasure becomes strong. It is in the latter case that we often speak of "gay" hope, of " cheering” or “bright” hope, and regard it as spreading a sort of rapturous light over the distant objects which it contemplates. "With thee, sweet Hope! resides the heavenly light, That pours remotest rapture on the sight.' The influence of that peculiar modification of pleased and vivid desire which, in order to distinguish it from other forms of desire, we denominate Hope, is undoubtedly very great; and, in most cases, it is to be presumed that its tendency is beneficial. Scarcely a duty or a situation of life can be named in which its influence is not felt more or less. The schoolboy is encouraged in his tasks by some hope of reward; and, when grown up to manhood, he cheers himself, after a thousand disappointments, with some good in prospect. The poor peasant, who laboriously cultivates his few steril acres, sees them, in his anticipation, rich, and blooming, and prodigal of wealth. It proffers its aid in the chambers of the sick and suffering; and the victim of oppressive tyranny, the captive in the dungeon, is encouraged to summon up the fortitude necessary to prolong his existence, by the hope, however poorly founded, of future deliverance. CHAPTER, VI. THE MALEVOLENT AFFECTIONS. § 151. Of the comparative rank of the affections. Ir will be recollected, after some general remarks on the Nature of desire, we proposed to prosecute the examination of what may be called, in distinction from the emotive, the desirous portion of the Pathematic sensibilities, under the subordinate heads of the Instincts, the Appetites, the Propensities, and the Affections. Having examined, so far as seemed to be necessary for our purpose, the first three divisions, we are now prepared to proceed to the last. The Affections are distinguished from the other forms of the desirous or propensive nature, besides other subordinate marks or characteristics, which will naturally present themselves to our notice as they come separately under examination, in being, in the first place, more complex, and also by the circumstance of their sustaining a higher place in the graduation of our esteem and honour. It may be difficult to explain how it happens, but it is unquestionably the fact, that there is a difference in the sentiments of esteem with which we contemplate different parts of our nature; some being regarded with higher, and some with less honour. In the graduation of our regard, it appears to be the fact, that we generally estimate the appetites as in some degree higher than the instincts, and the propensities as higher than either. To the Affections, especially the Benevolent affections, which occupy in our estimation a still more elevated position, we look with increased feelings of interest. They obviously stand at the head of the list; and when we shall have completed their examination, nothing more will remain to be said on the regular or ordinary action of the Natural Sensibilities. We shall then be at liberty to proceed to another and still more important class of subjects. 152. Of the complex nature of the affections. The Affections, unlike the Appetites and Propensities, as they exist in their primitive or original developement, are not simple states of mind, but complex. Accordingly, the term AFFECTION denotes a state of mind, of which it is indeed true that some simple emotion is always a part, but which differs from any single simple emotion in being combined with some form of that state of mind called DESIRE. "As to every sort of passion," says Kaimes, "we find no more in the composition but an emotion, pleasant or painful, accompanied with desire.” The affections are susceptible of being divided, although it may not be in all respects easy to carry the arrangement into effect in its details, into the two classes of Benevolent and Malevolent. The malevolent affections, as a general thing, include a painful emotion, accompanied with a desire of evil to the unpleasant object. The benevolent affections, on the contrary, include, for the most part, a pleasant emotion, accompanied with the desire of good to the pleasing object. But what distinguishes and characterizes the two classes is probably not so much the nature of the emotion, as the desire of good or evil which attends it.-It is on the basis of this division that we propose to proceed in the examination of this subject. It is proper to remark here, that the term PASSIONS, in conformity with the authorized usage of language, is susceptible of being employed as entirely synonymous with AFFECTIONS. In this sense we shall sometimes have occasion to use it, although it is frequently the case that it is employed also as expressive not merely of the existence of the affections, but as implying their existence in a raised or eminent degree. 153. Of resentment or anger. The first of the MALEVOLENT affections which we propose to consider (that which may be termed the foundation or basis of all the others) is Resentment or Anger. This affection, like all others, is of a complex nature, involving an unpleasant or painful emotion, accompanied with the desire of inflicting unpleasantness or pain on the object towards which it is directed. In its original or natural state, the desire appears to be, to some extent, the counterpart of the emotion; that is to say, having experienced an unpleasant or painful emotion, in consequence of the actual or supposed ill-conduct of others, we naturally desire, in the exercise of the Resentment arising under such circumstances, a corresponding retribution of pain on the offending agent. But in saying that they are reciprocally counterparts, we do not feel at liberty to assert, although there seems to be grounds for such a suggestion, that they possess to each other a precise and exact correspondence. There are various modifications of Resentment, so distinct from each other as easily to admit of a separate notice, and to be entitled to a distinct name, such as Peevishness, Jealousy, and Revenge. These will be considered, although in as brief a manner as possible, in their proper place. It is necessary to remark a little more at length upon the passion now before us, which may be regarded as in some important sense the foundation and the place of origin to all the others. 154. Illustrations of instinctive resentment. The AFFECTIONS, agreeing in this respect with what has been said of the Appetites and Propensities, have a twofold action, instinctive and voluntary; operating, in the |