rafts-a few inches. Mr Edwards says that not one in a hundred shots missed fire, and these shots were generally saved by the following singular expedient :-The pointed end of an iron bar, inch diameter, was inade red hot, and, being put quickly through the water, and driven through the tamping as rapidly as possible, was, in nine cases out of ten, sufficiently hot to ignite the gun. powder and fire the shot.

The cost of each shot is calculated as follows:

15 ft. of patent fuse at of a penny
Pitch, tallow, twine, coals, &c. ................

Cost per shot......£0 7 0

Each shot loosened and prepared for dredging about four cubic yards, so that the cost of blasting was 1s. 9d. per yard. The cost of dredging the material, after it had been thus prepared, was 28. 3d., making the whole charge for removing the marl 4s. per cubic yard."

One of the most recent successful combinations of blasting and dredging was that completed in 1875 by Mr John Fowler of Stockton at the river Tees, to whom the writer is indebted for the following particulars. The chief novelty was in the barge upon which the machinery was fixed. It was 58 feet by 28 feet by 4 feet, and had eight legs which were let down when the barge was in position, The legs were then fixed to the barge, so that on the tide falling it became a fixed platform from which the drilling was done. The holes were bored and charged, and when the tide rose the legs were heaved up and the barge removed, after which the shots were discharged. There were 24 boring tubes on the barge, and that was the limit which

could at any time be done in one tide. The surface over which the blasting was done measured 500 yards in length by 200 yards in breadth, a small part of that surface being uncovered at low water. The depth obtained in midchannel was 14 feet at low-water, the average depth of rock blasted being about 4 feet 6 inches. The holes, which were bored with the diamond drill, varied in depth from 7 to 9 feet, the distance between them being 10 feet. Dynamite in tin canisters fired by patent fuse was used as the explosive, the charges being 2 h and under. The rock is Oolite shale of variable hardness, and the average time occupied in drilling 5-feet holes was twelve minutes.

The dredger raised the blasted rock,-the cost for blasting, lifting, and discharging at sea being about 4s. per cubic yard, including interest on dredging and other plant employed. The dredger sometimes worked a face of blasted material of from 7 to 8 feet. The quantity blasted was 110,000 cubic yards, and the contract for blasting so as to be lifted by the dredger was 3s. 1d. per cubic yard.

Dredging in Exposed Situations.-In some cases dredging has to be conducted in exposed situations such as the deepening of the "flats" at Londonderry and the bar at Carlingford. Messrs Stevenson found that dredging at the Foyle could not be conducted when the height of the waves exceeded 2 feet; and Mr Barton at Dundalk so far ccnfirms this, as he estimates a swell of 2 feet as the highest to work in.

Dredging on the River Clyde.-An important point connected with this subject is the cost at which dredging may be done when conducted on a large scale. This, of course, must depend on the character of the stuff to be raised and other circumstances; but the following information, kindly communicated by Mr James Deas, the engineer to the Trustees of the Clyde Navigation. canhot fail to be both interesting and useful.

Mr Deas says truly that the Clyde Trustees employ probably the largest dredging fleet of any trust in the kingdom, in maintaining and still deepening and widening the river to meet the ever-increasing demands of the shipping trade.

In the year 1871, for example, 904,104 cubic yards, or about 1,130,000 tons, were dredged from the river, of which 689,560 cubic yards were carried to sea by steam hopper barges, and 214,544 cubic yards deposited on land by means of punts. Of this 904,104 cubic yards, 345,209 cubic yards were deposit from the higher reaches of the river and its tributaries, and from the city sewers, and 558,895 cubic yards new material. The total cost for dredging and depositing was £35,448, or about 9:41 pence per cubic yard.

Owing to the difference in power of the dredging machines employed, and the character of the material lifted, the cost of dredging varies much. In 1871 the most powerful machine, working 2420 hours, lifted 430,240 cubic yards of silt and sand at a cost of 2.60 pence per yard; and this was deposited in Loch Long, 27 miles from Glasgow, by steam hopper barges, at 5:46 pence per yard. On the other hand, another dredger, working 2605 hours, lifted only 26,720 cubic yards of hard gravel and boulder clay, at the cost of 208 pence per cubic yard, which was deposited on the alveus of the river at the cost of 17-46 pence per cubic yard; another, working 1831 hours, lifted 122,664 cubic yards of silt, sand, and sewage deposit, at the cost of 5 67 pence per cubic yard, which was deposited on land at the cost of 16:40 pence per cubic yard; and another, working 2233 hours, lifted 65,160 cubic yards of till, gravel, and sand, at the cost of 5-89 pence per cubic yard, which was deposited on the alveus of the river at the cost of 9.83 pence per cubic yard.

The total quantity dredged from the river during the twenty-seven years prior to 1872 amounts to 13,617,000

cubic yards, or upwards of 17,000,000 tons. The dredging plant of the Clyde Trust comprises→→

6 steam dredges,

14 steam hopper barges,

1 steam-tug,

3 diving-bells,

270 punts, and numerous small boats.

The expenditure for wages of crews, coal, and stores amounted in the year 1871 to fully £14,000, and for repairs £10,775. The value of the dredging plant employed is about £140,000.

Mr Deas has also kindly furnished the following tables, from which the reader will see the gradual increase that has been made on the size of the dredging machines to meet the increased depth of water and growing necessity of increased accommodation for the larger class of vessels which now frequent the river :—

General Dimensions of Dredgers employed on the Clyde in 1872.

£16,823 8 2

=5:46 pence cost per cubic yard.

Interest and depreciation-cost of 10 hopper barges, £51,510, at 10 per cent.......

£15,323, 8s. 28.

673,240 cubic yards,

total dredgings conveyed.

Note.-Four hopper barges are required to keep one dredger in constant work.

Abstract of the Quantity and Cost per Cubic yard of Dredging and Depositing during the year ending 30th June 1871.

and Bowling harbours, &c.

3 9

6 8

10 Hopper

3

8

barges

4

Tug

3

8

8

65 cwt. ...2 1. .....16 gills.

......

steamer

Nos. 1, 5, and 7 are punt-loading machines. Nos. 6 and 8 are hopper barge machines.

Reference is made to the following works:-Ency. of Civil Engin eering, by Edward Cressy, London, 1847; "The Dredging Machine," Weale's Quarterly Papers, i., London 1843; The Improvement of the Port of London, by R. Dodd, Engineer, 1798; "Account of Blast. ing on the Severn," by George Edwards, C. E., Minutes of Proceed ings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. iv. p. 361; "the River Clyde," by James Deas, C.E., Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. xxxvi. p. 124; Principles and Practice of Canal and River Engineering, by David Stevenson, 2d ed., A. & C. Black, Edinb. 1872, p. 126. (D. S.)

DRELINCOURT, CHARLES (1595-1669), an eminent minister of the French Calvinistic church, was born at Sedan on the 10th July 1695. He studied first at the university of his native town, and afterwards at Saumur under the celebrated Professor Mark Duncan. In June 1618 he undertook the charge of the French Protestant church at Langres, where his ministrations were highly appreciated. The church, however, failed to receive the necessary royal sanction, and early in 1620 Drelincourt 1 Contractor's price for discharging at Blythswood Park, including slip docks, and waggoning a distance of about mile.

Discharging by Trustees' men on river banks near Erskine Ferry, by beaching punts and wheeling.

Draught light (average), 5 ft. 6 in.

Draught loaded, 11 ft.

Speed, 8 to 9 miles

per

hour.

Capacity of hopper, 320 cubic yards, or say 400 tons

Average distance run, loaded, 20 miles.

Wages per day as under :

...20 gills.

Waste

Quantity and cost of dredging done by No. 8 Dredger during year ending 30th June 1871 :

removed to Paris, where he was ordained minister of the church at Charenton. He was a popular and eloquent preacher, distinguished especially by his power of practically applying the words of Scripture. He was the author of a large number of works in devotional and polemical theology, several of which had great influence, and attained a very extensive circulation. His Catechism and his Consolations against the Fear of Death (Consolations contre les frayeurs de la mort) became well known in England by means of translations, which were very frequently reprinted. It has been said that Defoe wrote his fiction of Mrs Veal, who came from the other world to recommend the perusal of Drelincourt on death, for the express purpose of promoting the sale of an English translation of the work. His controversial works were very numerous. Directed entirely against Roman Catholicism, they did much to strengthen and consolidate the Protestant party in France. Drelincourt died on the 3d November 1669. In 1625 he had married the only daughter of a wealthy merchant, by whom he had a family of sixteen. Several of his sons were distinguished as theologians or physicians. The third, Charles, was professor of physic at the university of Leyden, and physician to the prince of Orange; the sixth, Peter, was ordained a priest in the Church of England, and became dean of Armagh.

DRESDEN, the capital of the kingdom of Saxony, is situated in a beautiful and richly cultivated valley on both sides of the Elbe, at an altitude of 402 feet above the level

banks. The streets of the Altstadt are narrow and somewhat gloomy; those of the Neustadt wider and more regular. In 1875 there were 196,378 inhabitants, of whom 138,306 were on the left bank, 58,072 on the right. The vast majority of the population belong. to the Lutheran Church.

On account of its delightful situation, and the many objects of interest it contains, Dresden is often called "the German Florence," a name first applied to it by Herder. The most imposing of the churches is the church of Our Lady, built 1726-45, with a cupola 311 feet high. The Roman Catholic church, built 1737-56, contains a magnificent organ by Silbermann, a number of statues by Mattielli, and pictures by Raphael Mengs, Sylvestre, and other artists. The church of St Sophia, begun in the 14th century, completed in the 16th, and restored in 1864-69, the Cross Church, the Russian church, and the synagogue are also noteworthy buildings. The Royal Palace, rebuilt in 1534 by Duke George, surmounted by a tower 387 feet high, the highest in Dresden, is externally unattractive, but the interior is splendidly decorated. In the palace chapel are pictures by Rembrandt, Nicolas Poussin, Guido Reni, and Annibale Caracci. The Prince's Palace, built in 1715, has a fine chapel, in which are various works of Torelli; it has also a library of 20,000 volumes. The Zwinger, begun in 1711, and built in the Rococo style, forms an inclosure within which is a statue of King Frederick Augustus I. It was intended to be the vestibule to a palace, but now contains a number of collections of great value. Until 1846 it was open at the north side; but this space has since been occupied by the Museum, & beautiful building in the Renaissance style, the exterior of which is adorned by statues of Michelangelo, Raphael, Giotto, Dante, Goethe, and other artists and poets, by Rietschel and Hähnel. The Brühl Palace was built in 1737 by Count Brühl, the minister of Augustus II. Near it is the Brühl Terrace, approached by a grand flight of steps, on which are groups, by Schilling, representing Morning, Evening, Day, and Night. The terrace commands a charming view of the Elbe and the surrounding country, and is a favourite promenade. The Japanese Palace, in the Neustadt, built in 1715 as a summer residence for Augustus II., receives its name from certain Oriental figures with which it is decorated; it is also sometimes called the Augusteum. Connected with it is a public garden, from which, as from the Brühl Terrace, fine views are obtained. Among the remaining buildings of note may be n..med the guard-house, the arsenal, and the court theatre, an edifice in the Renaissance style, built since 1871 to replace the theatre burnt in 1869. In the Neustadt there is an equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong, erected in 1737. The public monuments of Dresden also include the Maurice Monument, a relief dedicated by the elector Augustus to the memory of his brother; a statue of Weber, the musical composer, by Rietschel; statues of King Frederick Augustus II. and Theodor Körner, by Hähnel; and the Rietschel monument, on the Brühl Terrace, by Schilling.

of the Baltic, 72 miles E.S.E. of Leipsic, and 116 miles S.E. of Berlin, in 51° 3' N. lat. and 13° 44' E. long. It is approached on almost every side through avenues of trees, and the distance is bounded by gentle eminences covered with plantations and vineyards. On the left bank of the Elbe are the Altstadt, with three suburbs, and Friedrichstadt (separated from the Altstadt by the Weisseritz, a small affluent of the Elbe); on the right the Neustadt and Antonstadt. Two fine brdges connect the Alstadt and Neustadt, one of them, the old bridge, erected 1727-31, being 1420 feet long, and having 16 arches. The other, built 1846-52, unites the railways on the right and left

The chief pleasure-ground of Dresden is the Grosser Garten, in which there are a summer theatre, the Rietschel Museum, and a château containing the Museum of Antiquities. The latter is composed chiefly of objects removed from the churches in consequence of the Reformation. Near the château is the zoological garden, formed in 1860, and excellently arranged. A little to the south of Dresden, cn the left bank of the Elbe, is the village Räcknitz, in which is Moreau's monument, erected on the spot where he was fatally wounded in 1813. The mountains of Saxon Switzerland are seen from this neighbourhood. On the right bank, the slopes of which are covered

with villas, there are several popular places of public

resort.

Dresden owes a large part of its fame to its extensive artistic, literary, and scientific collections. Of these the most valuable is its splendid picture gallery, founded by Augustus I. and increased by his successors at great cost. It is in the Museum, and contains about 2500 pictures, being especially rich in specimens of the Italian, Dutch, and Flemish schools. Among the Italiau masters represented are Raphael, Titian, Correggio, Leonardo da Vinci, Paolo Veronese, Andrea del Sarto, Giulio Romano, Annibale Caracci, Guido Reni, and Carlo Dolci. Of the Flemish and Dutch schools there are paintings by Rubens, Vandyck, Rembrandt, and Ruysdael, Wouvermann, Dów, Teniers, Ostade, Potter, &c. The French school is represented, among others, by Poussin and Claude. The gem of the collection is Raphael's Madonna di San Sisto, for which a room is set apart. There is also a special room for the Madonna of the younger Holbein. Other paintings with which the name of the gallery is generally associated are Coreggio's La Notte and Mary Magdalene; Titian's Tribute Money and Venus; The Adoration and The Marriage in Cana, by Paolo Veronese; Andrea del Sarto's Abraham's Sacrifice; Rembrandt's Portrait of Himself with his Wife sitting on his Knee; The Judgment of Paris and The Boar Hunt, by Rubens; Vandyck's Charles I., his Queen, and their Children. In separate compartments there are a number of crayon portraits, most of them by Rosalba Carriera, and views of Dresden by Canaletto and other artists. Besides the picture gallery the Museum includes a magnificent collection of engravings and drawings. There are upwards of 350,000 specimens, arranged in twelve classes, so as to mark the great epochs in the history of art. A collection of casts, likewise in the Museum, is designed to display the progress of plastic art from the timeof the Egyptians and Assyrians to modern ages. This collection was begun by Raphael Mengs, who secured casts of the most valuable antiques in Italy, some of which no longer exist. The Japanese Palace contains a public library of more than 300,000 volumes, with about 3000 MSS. and 20,000 maps. This library is especially rich in the ancient classics, and in works bearing on literary history and the history of Germany, Poland, and France. In the Japanese Palace there are also a valuable cabinet of coins and a collection of ancient works of art. A collection of porcelain, formerly in the Japanese Palace, but since 1876 in the "Museum Johanneum" (which once contained the picture gallery), is made up of specimens of Chinese, Japanese, East Indian, Sèvres, and Meissen manufacture, carefully arranged in chronological order. There is in the same building an excellent Historical Museum, in which there are many interesting relics of past times, besides objects which cast light on the history of races and of manners. In the Green Vault of the Royal Palace, so called from the character of its original decorations, there is an unequalled collection of precious stones, pearls, and works of art in gold, silver, amber, and ivory. The objects, which are about 3000 in number, are arranged in eight rooms. They include the regalia of Augustus II. as king of Poland; the electoral sword of Saxony; a group by Dinglinger, in gold and enamel, representing the court of the Grand Mogul Aurungzebe, and consisting of 132 figures upon a plate of silver 4 feet 4 inches square; the largest onyx known, 63 inches by 21 inches; a pearl representing the dwarf of Charles II. of Spain; and a green brilliant weighing 40 carats. Besides the Green Vault the Royal Palace has a gallery of arms, consisting of more than 2000 weapons of artistic or historical value. In the Zwinger are the Zoological and Mineralogical Museums, and a collection of instruments used in mathematical and physical science.

The two chief art institutions in Dresden are the Royal Academy of Arts, founded in 1764, and the Royal Choir. The Art Union, founded in 1828, which has a permanent exhibition in the Brühl Terrace, is a private body; and there are a good many other private art societies more or less distinguished. Dresden is also the seat of a number of well-known scientific associations. The educational institutions of the town are both numerous and of a high order, including a technical college with a staff (in 1876) of 39 professors and teachers, three gymnasia, two real schools of the first class, and many schools of different ranks for popular education. The Catholics and Jews have schools of their own; and there are two seminaries for the education of teachers. Dresden has several important hospitals, asylums, and other charitable institutions.

Among the chief branches of industry are manufactures in gold and silver, turnery, straw plait, scientific and musical instruments, paper-hangings, artificial flowers, and painters' canvas. There are several large breweries; a considerable corn trade is carried on; and there is an extensive traffic in books and objects of art. A number of steam-ship companies provide for the navigation of the Elbe.

Dresden, which is known to have existed in 1206, is of Slavonic origin. It became the capital of Henry the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen, in 1270, but belonged for some time after his death, denburg. Early in the fourteenth century it was restored to the first to Wenceslas of Bohemia, and next to the margrave of Branmargrave of Meissen. On the division of the territory in 1485, it fell to the Albertine line, which has since held it. Having been burned almost to the ground in 1491, it was rebuilt; and in the John George II., in the 17th century, formed the Grosser Garten, 16th century the fortifications were begun and gradually extended. and otherwise greatly improved the town; but it was in the first half of the 18th century, under Augustus I. and Augustus II., who were kings of Poland as well as electors of Saxony, that Dresden which had been burned down in the 17th century, was founded assumed something like its present appearance. The Neustadt, anew by Augustus I.; He also founded Friedrichstadt. The town suffered severely during the Seven Years' War, being bombarded in 1760. Some damage was also inflicted on it in 1813, when Napoleon made it the centre of his operations; one of the buttresses and two arches of the old bridge were then blown up. The dismantling of the fortifications had been begun by the French in 1810, and was gradually completed after 1817, the space occupied by them being appropriated to gardens and promenades. Many buildings were completed or founded by King Anton, from whom Antonstadt derives its name. during the revolution of 1849, but all traces of the disturbances Dresden again suffered severely which then took place were soon effaced. In 1866 it was occupied by the Prussians, who did not finally evacuate it until the spring of the following year. Since that time numerous improvements have been carried out, and between 1871 and 1875 the population increased at the rate of rather more than 11 per cent. (J. SI.)

DREUX (Durocassis, Droca), a town of France in the department of Eure-et-Loir, on the Blaise, 21 miles north of St Pierre; the town-house, partly in the Gothic and of Chartres. Noteworthy structures are the Gothic church partly in the Renaissance style, built in the 16th century; and the remains of a castle of the 12th century, situated on the hill overlooking the town, within the inclosure of which is a chapel commenced in 1816 by the dowager duchess of Orleans, and completed and adorned at great cost by Louis Philippe. The chief industries of Dreux are dyeing and silk-weaving, and the manufacture of jewellery, serges, hosiery, candles, hats, and leather. In 1872 the population of the commune was 7418, of the town 6666.

Dreuz was governed by counts in the Middle Ages. In 1188 it was taken and burnt by the English; and in 1562 Coligni and the prince of Condé were defeated in its vicinity by Montmorency. In 1593 Henry IV. captured the town after a fortnight's siege. Dreux was occupied by the Germans on October 9th, 1870, was subsequently evacuated, and was again taken, on November 17th, by General Von Tresckow.

DREW, SAMUEL (1765–1833), theologian, was born in the parish of St Austell, in Cornwall, March 3, 1765. His