the Admiralty, a man of extraordinary knowledge in all that related to the business of that department, of great talents, and the most indefatigable industry."

The entire management of the navy was now in the hands of the duke, as lord high admiral, by whom three new commissioners were appointed to act with the treasurer of the navy, the comptroller, the surveyor, and clerk of the acts, as principal officers and commissioners of the navy. A book of instructions, drawn out by Pepys, was sent to the navy board for its guidance. A rapid progress was made in the repair and augmentation of the fleet; but the duke being called away, in consequence of the Dutch war in 1664, the example of zeal and industry set by Pepys was not sufficient, in the duke's absence, to prevent neglect and mismanagement in every department, except his own.

HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT OF DOCKYARDS.-When Henry VIII. first established a regular king's dockyard at Woolwich, he appointed a board, consisting of certain commissioners for the management of all naval matters; and it is curious enough (see the Pepysian Collection of Manuscripts in the university of Cambridge), that the regulations which he made for the civil government of the navy, and which were in the reign of Edward VI. revised, arranged, and turned into ordinances, form the broad basis of all the subsequent instructions given to the several officers to whom the management of the civil affairs of the navy has been committed. The commissioners of the navy then consisted of the vice-admiral of England, the master of the ordnance, the surveyor of the marine causes, the treasurer, comptroller, general surveyor of the victualling, clerk of the ships, and clerk of the stores. They had each their particular duties; and once a week they were ordered to meet at their office on Tower Hill, and once a month report their proceedings to the lord high admiral.

In 1609 the principal officers for conducting the civil affairs of the navy were suspended, in consequence of many abuses being complained of; and other commissioners were appointed, with powers to manage, settle, and put the affairs of the navy into a proper train, and to prevent, by such measures as might appear to be necessary, the continuance of the many great frauds and abuses which had prevailed. A similar commission was renewed in 1618, which in a full and minute report detailed and explained those frauds and abuses. That commission, which ended on the death of James I., was renewed by his successor, and remained in force till 1628, when it was dissolved, and the management of the navy was restored to the board of officers established by Edward VI.

In the disturbed reign of Charles I. the navy was suffered to go to decay; but by the extraordinary exertions of Cromwell it was raised to a height which it had never before reached; it again declined, however, under the administration of his son. At the Restoration, the duke of York, of whom Macaulay wrote that he was the only honest man in his dockyards, was appointed lord high admiral; and by his advice a committee was appointed to consider a plan he had drawn out for the future regulation of the affairs of the navy, at which he himself presided. "In all naval affairs," say the commissioners of revision, "he appears to have acted with the advice and assistance of Mr Samuel Pepys, who first held the

From 1673 to 1679, the office of lord high admiral was put in commission with Trince Rupert at the head of it. The king, through Pepys, arranged all naval affairs; but in the latter year, when the duke was sent abroad, and Pepys to the Tower, a new set of men were made commissioners of the navy, who, without experience, ability, or industry, suffered the navy to go to decay. "All the wise regulations," say the commissioners of revision, "formed during the administration of the duke of York, were neglected; and such supineness and waste appear to have prevailed as, at the end of not more than five years, when he was recalled to the office of lord high admiral, only twenty-two ships, none larger than a fourthrate, with two fireships, were at sea; those in the harbour were quite unfit for service; even the thirty new ships which he had left building had been suffered to fall into a state of great decay, and hardly any stores were found to remain in the dock-yards." Pepys was re-appointed secretary of the Admiralty; the king instituted an inquiry into the characters and abilities of the first ship-builders in England, and by the advice of Pepys added Sir Anthony Dean, eminent in that profession, with three others, to the former principal officers. The old commissioners were directed entirely to confine their attention to the business of a committee of accounts. To each of the new commissioners was intrusted a distinct branch of the proposed reform; and it appears that, highly to their credit, "they performed what they had undertaken in less time than was allowed for it, and at less expense," having completed their business to the general satisfaction of the public two months before the Revolution. The business of the navy, thus methodized and settled, remained undisturbed by that event.

It will readily be seen that the vast increase of our naval force since that time has necessarily required many addi tional orders and regulations, some of which, from circumstances, were not compatible with each other; some were given to one dockyard and not to another; others in one yard became obsolete, while they continued to be acted upon in another; so that there was no longer that uniformity in the management which it is desirable—indeed, essentially necessary to preserve. From the year 1764 to 1804, when the king appointed a commission "for revising and digesting the civil affairs of his navy," the attention of the lords of the admiralty and the navy board had frequently been directed to this important subject; but nothing was done to forward so desirable an arrangement, except that Sir Charles Middleton (afterwards Lord Barham), when comptroller of the navy, classed and digested under distinct heads all orders and regulations prior to the year 1786. The commissioners of naval inquiry, appointed in 1803, state the necessity of revising the instructions, and digesting the immense mats of orders

Issued to the dockyard officers, and regret that a work of such utility should not have been completed. The commission consisted of Admiral Lord Barham, Jolin Fordyce, Esq., Admiral Sir Roger Curtis, Bart., Vice-Admiral Domett, and Ambrose Serle, Esq. They made fifteen distinct reports, the date of the first being 13th June 1805, of the last the 6th March 1808. All these except two were printed by order of the House of Commons, and were mostly carried into effect by Orders in Council. One of the two not printed is an inquiry into the state of the navy at different periods, and of naval timber; the other relates to the formation of a new dock-yard at Northfleet.

These reports led to the establishment, for the first time, in all dockyards, of one uniform system of management, by which it was hoped incalculable advantages would have been secured, in the preventing of frauds, in the saving of labour and materials, and consequently time and expense, and in securing better workmanship in the construction of ships; but the system was cumbrous and expensive, and has given way to other more judicious management.

The management of the dockyards, and of all the civil affairs of the navy, was formerly intrusted to certain commissioners, of whom the comptroller of the navy, three surveyors, and seven other commissioners formed a board at Somerset House, for the general direction and superintendence of the civil concerns of the navy, subject to the control of the Admiralty. At most of the yards, both home and foreign, was a commissioner of the navy, who was nearly always a naval officer of the rank of captain. The foreign yards over which a commissioner presided were Bermuda, Cape of Good Hope, Gibraltar, Halifax, Jamaica, Malta, Quebec, Kingston (Canada), and Trincomalee. These, with the five belonging to the home yards, Woolwich (including Deptford), Chatham, Sheerness, Portsmouth, and Plymouth, made the whole number of commissioners of the navy amount to twenty-four.

In 1832 Sir James Graham, then first lord of the Admiralty, substituted for these commissioners five depart mental officers, who were called "principal" officers of the navy. These were the surveyor of the navy, the accountant-general, the storekeeper-general, the comp troller of victualling and transports, the director general of the medical department (see ADMIRALTY). To these were subsequently added a director of works and a director of transports. In 1869 this arrangement was modified. The post of storekeeper-general was abolished, and the duties discharged by him were incorporated with the department of the comptroller of the navy, who had a few years before superseded the more limited surveyor of the navy; the office of comptroller of victualling was also modified, and the work of his department was incorporated with that of the Admiralty generally, under the control of the sea lord. The business of purchase and sale for each of the five departments was at the same time concentrated in one purchase department under a director of navy contracts.

Victualling establishments.-At each of the dockyards at Deptford, Portsmouth, and Plymouth are victualling establishments for supplying the fleet with provisions and water; and also at Cork, Cape of Good Hope, Gibraltar, Malta, Jamaica, Halifax, Trincomalee, Rio de Janeiro, Barbados, Sierra Leone, Hong Kong, Valparaiso, and Bermuda. The victualling board at Somerset House consisted formerly of a chairman and deputy chairman, and five other commissioners, two secretaries, a registrar of securities, and 136 clerks.

The transport board!aving been dissolved at the end of the great French war, its twofold duties were divided between the navy and victualling boards; those which concerned the hiring of transports devolved on the commissioners of the

navy, and those which related to the sick and hurt department, on the commissioners of the victualling board, on whom also devolved the direction and superintendence of all the naval hospitals at home and abroad. These have also merged in the Admiralty, where there is a transport depart ment under the supervision of a director of transports— a naval officer, first appointed after the Crimean war. Officers of the dockyard.-The principal officers of an established dockyard, prior to 1833, were-1, the commissioner; 2, the master attendant; 3, the master shipwright; 4, the clerk of the check; 5, the storekeeper; 6, the clerk of the survey; to which were added the subordinate officers of timber-master, and the master measurer. By the regulations in 1833, the commissioner was superseded by a superintendent, the offices of clerk of the check, clerk of the survey, and master measurer were abolished, and a store-receiver was substituted for the timber-master. Many subordinate offices were abolished, and the whole system of working the men and keeping the accounts was simplified and amended. Some idea may be formed of the diminution of the expense by the simple fact that, while in the ordinary estimate of the navy for 1817 the establishment of officers in Portsmouth yard was £50,065, in 1833 it was only £19,803, and in 1853, £20,121. To this last, however, must be added the salaries of officers employed in the steam factory, which amounted to £2555. The principal officers in the factory are-1, the chief engineer and inspector of machinery; 2, his assistant; 3, assistant inspector of machinery; 4, foreman of the factory; 5, foreman of boilermakers; 6, pay-clerk and book-keeper.

At one time the men in the dockyards were employed almost wholly on job and task-work. Between 1850 and the present time they have been almost wholly on a day pay smaller than that given in the general trade, but having a title to a pension, contingently upon good service and good behaviour, attached to it. In 1869 Mr Childers cut down to a considerable extent the "establishment" system of dockyardmen, replaced the vacancies with hired men on higher pay, but without a title to pension, and with the usual liability to discharge at a week's notice when work is slack. The salary system, with its concomitant vested interests, was not found to be productive of quick and therefore of economical work. Mr Childers's alteration improved matters not a little, but job and taskwork, besides being more in accordance with the usages of the day, is far more likely to interest and stimulate the men. One great advantage, however, of the salary system is the discouragement it gives to strikes. The conditions under which alone pensious are earned act as deterrents.

In ordinary years the number of workmen of all kinds required for the service of the dockyards is, in round numbers, 16,000.

Defence of the yards.-In the year 1847 the workmen of the several dockyards were enrolled into a corps for the defence of the yards; and certain numbers were trained to the use of the great gun exercise, so that each of the dockyard battalions had some artillery attached to them. In 1854 the corps fell into desuetude, and was finally swallowed up in the volunteer movement.

FOREIGN DOCKYARDS.-The dockyards of the principal foreign states at the present time (1877) are as follows:— Pola and Trieste. .Copenhagen.

Austria.. Denmark

.....

France.................... Cherbourg, Brest, L'Orient, Rochefort, Toulon.
Germany.. .Kiel, Dantzic, Wilhelmshafen.
Italy. .....Spezzia, Naples, Castellamare.
Russia..... ....Cronstadt, St Petersburg, Sevastopol, Nicholaieff.
Spain........ .Cartagena, Cadiz.
United States... Portsmouth, Charlestown, Brooklyn, Philadelphia,
Washington, Norfolk, Pensacola, Mare Island
(Pacific).

DOCTOR, denoting etymologically a teacher, is the title conferred by the highest university degree. Originally there were only two steps in graduation, those of bachelor and master, and the title doctor was given to certain masters as an alternative or as a merely honorary appellation. It is in this sense that the word is to be understood in the phrase Doctor Angelicus applied to Aquinas, and in many other familiar instances of a similar kind. The process by which the doctorate became established as a third degree, distinct from and superior to that of master, cannot be very clearly traced. At Bologna it seems to have been conferred in the faculty of law as early as the 12th century, but there is no sufficient authority for the statement commonly made that the celebrated Irnerius drew up the formulary for the ceremonial, and that Bulgarus was the first who took the degree. Paris, the other great university of the Middle Ages, conferred the degree in the faculty of divinity, according to Antony Wood, some time after 1150, the earliest recipients being Peter Lombard and Gilbert de la Portree. In England the degree was introduced in the reign of John or of Henry III. Both in England and on the Continent it was confined for a considerable period to the faculties of law and divinity; it was not until the 14th century that it began to be conferred in medicine, and in England it is still unknown in the faculty of arts. In Germany, however, there is a degree of doctor of philosophy. The doctorate of music was first conferred at Oxford and Cambridge; its use in Germany is comparatively recent. See UNIVERSITIES.

DOCTORS' COMMONS was a society of ecclesiastical lawyers in London, forming a distinct profession for the practice of the civil and canon laws. Some members of the profession purchased in 1567 a site near St Paul's, on which at their own expense they erected houses for the residence of the judges and advocates, and proper buildings for holding the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts. "In the year 1768 a royal charter was obtained by virtue of which the then members of the society and their successors were incorporated under the name and title of 'The College of Doctors of Law exercent in the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts. The college consists of a president (the dean of Arches for the time being) and of those doctors of law who, having regularly taken that degree in either of the universities of Oxford or Cambridge, and having been admitted advocates in pursuance of the rescript of the archbishop of Canterbury, shall have been elected fellows in the manner prescribed by the charter." The judges of the archiepiscopal courts were always selected from this college. By 20 and 21 Vict. c. 77 (the Act to amend the law relating to Probate and Letters of Administration) § 116 and 117, the college is empowered to sell its real and personal estate and to surrender its charter to Her Majesty, and it is enacted that on such surrender the college shall be dissolved and the property thereof shall belong to the then existing members as tenants in common for their own use and benefit. In pursuance of this-enactment the college has been dissolved and the ecclesiastical courts are now open to the whole bar.

DOCTRINAIRES, the name applied by its opponents to a small but very influential political party in France which made itself prominent after the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815. The doctrine or fundamental principle on which its action was based was that the sole justification of any form of government was the manner in which it exercised its power. Rejecting the claim of divine right, whether urged for monarchy or for republicanism, the doctrinaires were opposed alike to the ultra-royalists and to the revolutionists. In the chamber they occupied the left centre, and thus marked themselves out from the centre or ministerialist and the left or opposition party.

While maintaining the re-established dynasty their efforts were mainly directed towards moulding the constitution into a shape resembling as nearly as possible that of England. The leaders of the doctrinaires were RoyerCollard, the Duc de Broglie, and Guizot. After the revolution of 1830 several of them came into power and proved strong supporters of constitutional monarchy on the model that has existed in England since the reign of William. The name doctrinaires fell entirely out of use after 1848, but the principles of the party have been faithfully represented since that date by the Orleanists. See FRANCE.

DODD, DR WILLIAM (1729-1777), an unfortunate English divine, eldest son of the Rev. William Dodd, many years vicar of Bourne, in Lincolnshire was born there in May 1729. He was sent, at the age of sixteen, to the university of Cambridge, where he was admitted a sizar of Clare Hall in 1745. He took the degree of B.A. in 1750, being in the list of wranglers. On leaving the university, he married a young woman of the name of Perkins, the daughter of a verger. She had a more than questionable reputation, and her extravagant habits contributed in no small degree to her husband's disgrace and ruin. In 1751 he was ordained deacon, anl in 1753 priest, and he soon became a popular and celebrated preacher. His first preferment was the lectureship of West-Ham and Bow. In 1754 he was also chosen lecturer of St Olave's, Hart Street; and in 1757 he took the degree of M.A. at Cambridge. He was a strenuous supporter of the Magdalen Hospital, which was founded in 1758, and soon afterwards became preacher at the chapel of that charity. In 1763 he obtained a prebend at Brecon, and in the same year he was appointed one of the king's chaplains,-soon after which the education of Philip Stanhope, afterwards earl of Chesterfield, was committed to his care. In 1766 he went to Cambridge, and took the degree of LL.D. At this period he was held in high estimation; but eager for further advancement, he unhappily entered on courses which in the end proved the occasion of his ruin. On the living of St George's, Hanover Square, becoming vacant, he wrote an anonymous letter to the wife of the lord chancellor offering three thousand guineas if, by her assistance, he was promoted to the benefice. This letter having been traced to him, a complaint was immediately made to the king, and he was dismissed with disgrace from his office of chaplain. After residing for some time at Geneva and Paris, he returned to England in 1776. He still continued to exercise his clerical functions, but his extravagant mode of life soon involved him in difficulties. To meet the demands of his creditors he forged a bond on his former pupil Lord Chesterfield for £4200, and actually received the money. But he was detected, committed to prison, tried at the Old Bailey, found guilty, and sentenced to death; and, in spite of numerous applications for mercy, he was executed at Tyburn on the 27th June 1777 Dr Samuel Johnson was very zealous in pleading for a pardon, and a petition from the city of London received 23,000 signatures. Dr Dodd was a voluminous writer, and possessed considerable abilities, with but little judgment and much vanity. His Beauties of Shakespeare, published before he entered the church, was long a well-known work; and his Thoughts in Prison, a poem in blank verse, written in the interval between his conviction and his execution, naturally attracted much attention. He published a large number of sermons and other theological works. accurate list of his various writings is prefixed to his Thoughts in Prison.

An

DODDER (Frisian dodd, a bunch; Dutch dot, ravelled thread), the popular name of the annual, leafless, twining,

epiphytic plants forming the genus Cuscuta and natural order Cuscutaceae or, according to some botanists, the tribe Cuscutec of the Convolvulacea. All the species are natives of temperate regions, and all have strong acrid properties. The flowers, which grow in clusters, have a quinque-partite, coloured calyx; scales alternating with the corolline lobes; carpels forming a syncarpous ovary; the albumen of the seeds fleshy; and the embryo spiral, filiform, and acotyledonous. On coming in contact with the living stem of some other plant the seedling dodder throws out a sucker, by which it attaches itself and commences to absorb the sap of its foster-parent; it then soon ceases to have any connection with the ground. As it grows, it throws out fresh suckers, establishing itself firmly on its victim. After making a few turns round one stem the dodder finds its way to another, and thus it continues twining and branching till it resembles "fine, closely-tangled, wet catgut." The injury done to flax, clover, hop, and bean crops by species of dodder is often very great. C. europaea, the Greater Dodder, is found parasitic on nettles, thistles, vetches, and the hop; C. Epilinum, on flax; C. Epithymum, on furze, ling, and thyme. C. Trijoli, the Clover Dodder, is perhaps a sub-species of the last-mentioned. For a figure of C. verrucosa, the Warty Dodder, see vol. iv. pl. x.

DODDRIDGE, PHILIP (1702-1751), a celebrated nonconformist divine, was born in 1702. His father, Daniel Doddridge, was a London merchant, and his mother the orphan daughter of the Rev. John Bauman, a Bohemian clergyman who had fled to England to escape religious persecution, and had held for some time the mastership of the grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. He was the youngest of a family of twenty, of whom there was at his birth only one other child, a daughter, surviving. It is also remarkable that he himself at his birth was put aside as actually dead, and was only preserved alive owing to the accidental glance of one of the attendants, who fancied she perceived a feeble heaving of the infant's chest, and was successful in rekindling the almost extinguished vital spark. Before he could read, his mother taught him the history of the Old and New Testament by the assistance of some blue Dutch tiles; and these stories, he says, were the means of enforcing such good impressions on his heart as never afterwards wore out. When sufficiently old to leave the paternal roof he was placed under the tuition of the Rev. Mr Scott, who taught a private school in London, and on attaining his tenth year he was sent to the grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. About 1715 he was removed to a private school at St Albans, where he began to keep an exact account of his time in order the better to improve himself by private meditation and study, and was in the habit during his walks of entering the neighbouring cottages to read to the inmates a few pages from the Bible or from some religious book. Through the interest of friends a proposal was made to him, in 1719, which would have enabled him to enter the English bar; but receiving at the same time an invitation to study for the ministry, he preferred the latter, and shortly thereafter removed to the academy for dissenters at Kibworth in Leicestershire, taught at that time by the Rev. John Jennings. Mr Jennings having in 1722 received an invitation to Hinckley, the academy was removed thither; and in 1723 Doddridge, having finished his studies, accepted an invitation to succeed him in the ministry at Kibworth. He had also been mentioned by Jennings, who died in 1723, as the person most fitted to extend his plans and views as an instructor of candidates for the ministry, but it was not till 1729 that, at a general meeting of nonconformist ministers, he was chosen to conduct the academy established in that year at Harborough. In the same year he received an invitation from the congregation

at Northampton, which he accepted. Here he continued his ministrations till 1751, when the rapid progress of consumptive disease caused him to seek the advantages of a milder climate. Accordingly he sailed for Lisbon on the 30th September of that year: but the change was unavailing. and he died there on 26th October.

His popularity as a preacher is said to have been chidy due to his "high susceptibility, joined with physical advantages and perfect sincerity." His sermons were mostly practical in character, and his great aim was to cultivate in his hearers a spiritual and devotional frame of mind. "He endeavoured," he says, "to write on the common general principles of Christianity, and not in the narrow spirit of any particular party." "There is," says his biographier, "a remarkable delicacy and caution evinced in the works of Dr Doddridge whenever the subject approaches the disputed points of theology. The genuine expressions of the sacred writers are then employed, and the reader is allowed to draw his own conclusions, unbiassed by the prejudices of human authorities." Those portions of his theological lectures which treat on the matter alluded to, substantiate this statement. His principal works are The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul, The Family Expositor, Life of Colonel Gardiner, and a Course of Metuphysical, Ethical, and Theological Lectures. He also published several courses of sermons on particular topics, and is the author of many well-known hymns.

See Memoirs, by Rev. Job Orton, 1766; Letters to and from Dr Doddridge, by Rev. Thomas Stedman, 1790; and Correspondence and Diary, in 5 vols. by his grandson, John Doddridge Humphreys,

1829.

DÖDERLEIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH WILHELM LUDWIG (1791-1863), a distinguished German philologist, was born at Jena on the 19th December 1791. His father, Johann Christoph Döderlein, professor of theology at Jena, was celebrated for his varied learning, for his eloquence as a preacher, and for the important influence he exerted in guiding the transition movement from strict orthodoxy to a freer theology. Ludwig Döderlein, after receiving his preliminary education at Windsheim and Schulpforta, studied at Munich, Heidelberg, Erlangen, and Berlin. Ha devoted his chief attention to philology under the instruction of such men as Thiersch, Creuzer, Voss, Wolf, Boeckh, and Buttmann. In 1815, soon after completing his studies at Berlin, he accepted the appointment of ordinary professor of philology in the academy of Bern. In 1819. he was transferred to Erlangen, where he became second professor of philology in the university and rector of the gymnasium. In 1827 he became first professor of philology and rhetoric and director of the philological seminary. He continued to discharge the duties of both these offices until within a short period of his death, which occurred on the 9th November 1863. Döderlein's most valuable work as a philologist was rendered in the department of etymology and lexicography. He is best known by his Lateinische Synonymen und Etymologien (6 vols., Leipsic, 1826-38), and his Homerische Glossarium (3 vols., Erlangen, 1850-58). T. the same class belong his Lateinische Wortbildung (Leipsic, 1838), Handbuch der Lateinischen Synonymik. (Leipsic, 1839), and the Handbuch der Lateinischen Etymologie (Leipsic, 1841), besides various works of a more elementary kind intended for the use of schools and gymnasia. Most of the works named have been translated into English. To critical philology Döderlein contributed valuable editions of Tacitus (Opera, 1847; Germania, with a German transla tion) and Horace (Epistolæ, with a German translation, 1856-8; Satiræ, 1860). His Reden und Aufsätzen (Erlangen, 1843-7) and Oeffentliche Reden (1860) consist chiefly of academic addresses dealing with various subiects. in pædagogy and philology.