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Petty wars with both Mahrattas and Moguls showed the English that they would be compelled to acquire territory in order to protect their trade. The three great centres had been established, Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta; and the Company, about 1685, sent out Sir John Child with power to make war or peace and arrange for the safety of the Company. His title was Governor-General, a title that died with him and was not revived until it was given to Warren Hastings. The financial success of the East India Company was continuous. This caused rivalry and the formation of other English East India companies, but in every case the "interloper," whether a company or an individual, was taken into the original association, so that from 1600 to 1858 the name English East India Company stands for one organization. During the seventeenth century the French organized a French East India Company similar to the Dutch and English companies. The French and English traded side by side without the rivalry that had existed between the English and the other European nations, until the war of the Austrian succession made the representatives of France and England in India fear each other. During the difficulties that arose at this time the French captured Madras, and although it was restored to the English by the terms of the treaty entered into by the home government at Aix-la-Chapelle, the French success

influenced the native rulers later to side with the French and feel contempt for the English. The French were more diplomatic than the English and more affable to the native chiefs, and so had gained many favors from the Emperor at Delhi, the Great Mogul, such as being allowed to coin money for the provinces of the Carnatic. By the middle of the eighteenth century the French had a lucrative trade in India, with posts at Pondicherry in the Carnatic and Chandernagor near Calcutta.

Dupleix in 1741 was made Governor of Pondicherry with supreme control over French India. Southern India, after the death of the Great Mogul Aurungzebe, had divided up into states that declared themselves independent of the Mogul. By supporting the claims of two native chiefs, one for the Carnatic and one for the Deccan, Dupleix became a political power. In self-defence the English espoused the cause of a rival chief for the Carnatic, Mohammed Ali, afterward known as the "Nabob of Arcot." It was at this time that Clive, a young man of twenty-four, without military training, came forward with a plan to recover lost ground for the English. He was listened to and allowed troops. The account of the struggle between the French and the English for the control of the Carnatic, and the success of the English; and the further account of Clive's successes in Bengal, where he con

quered the army of Surajah Dowlah, revenged the tragedy of the Black Hole, fought the battle of Plassey, made Meer Jaffier Nabob of Bengal, and silenced the French and Dutch forever in the "Garden of India," the account of all this is vividly given in Macaulay's Lord Clive. It was in the events following the battle of Plassey that Warren Hastings' active life began, and there begins Macaulay's account of him. As has been said, the object of the East India Company at first had been trade merely. The opposition of the Portuguese, Dutch, and French, and the unsettled condition of the native rulers, forced the first fights upon them to protect their property; in time this seemed to demand that they should become the aggressors, and when Hastings went to India the battle of Plassey had settled the policy of England in India as one of conquest.

The Warren Hastings essay continues the account of the British in India from Clive's time to 1785. The remainder of this article will describe briefly the events from 1785 to the time of settled government.

After Hastings left India there was a revolt of the Sikhs, but the English conquered them and the Punjab was annexed as English territory. This with lesser victories seemed to give all India to the control of the English Company, and it had never seemed so strong nor so secure in its monopoly. In 1857 the native

element of the army, by being recruited to assist against the Mahrattas, Afghans, and Sikhs, had grown to about 350,000 men, while the European part numbered only about 25,000. With these figures before us we can understand the great Sepoy Mutiny. The Rulers of India series gives a full account of the Mutiny, and Mrs. Steele in her novel On the Face of the Waters has made the capture of Delhi by the Sepoys, the siege of Lucknow, and the surrender and massacre at Cawnpore, seem horribly real. The Mutiny was put down, but it had brought home to English statesmen the need of formal acceptance of the responsibilities of government in India. In the spring of 1858 the Mutiny was broken; in the fall of that year the East India Company's rule terminated, and the sovereignty of the Queen was declared.

For two hundred and fifty-eight years the East India Company controlled and directed the political and military government of India. They went to India as traders; to protect their interests they became conquerors and administrators. They made India a possession of Great Britain, and for years were in the curious position of a company of merchants vested with the control of a whole empire. It was not until 1858 that England took the entire administration of the government of India into her own hands.

A Summary of the chief Acts of Parliament relating to the East India Company

1600. The original charter was granted by Queen Elizabeth. It gave to the Company the exclusive privilege of the India trade.

1773. The Regulating Act was passed, whose chief provisions are given in the Warren Hastings essay.

1784. Pitt's India Bill passed. This founded the Board of Control in England. This Board was authorized to superintend, direct, and control all acts, operations, and concerns relating to the civil and military government of India. It was empowered to send out troops to India at the expense of the Company. The Directors of the Company were required to submit all papers to this Board except those relating to commercial matters. The phrase Governor-General-in-Council originated at this time.

1813. Parliament renewed the charter for twenty years, but abolished the Company's monopoly of Indian trade. The appointment of governor-general, governor, and commander-inchief was no longer valid without the consent of the crown.

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