THE EMANCIPATION OF THE Slaves (a.d. 1863). James Schouler 2180 THE BATTLE Of Gettysburg (A.D. 1863). James Schouler . THE SUEZ CANAL (A.D. 1869). J. W. Grover . THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (A.D. 1870-1871). James Sime. THE CONGRESS of Berlin (a.d. 1878). Justin McCarthy THE RISE OF Mahdism (a.d. 1881). G. W. Steevens . ITALIAN COLONIZATION on the Red Sea (a.d. 1882). Pietro Orsi 2280 THE GREAT SIBERIAN RAILWAY (A.D. 1886). John Geddie . . . 2289 THE BATTLE OF the Yalu (a.D. 1894). F. Warrington Eastlake and Yamada Yoshi-Aki THE BATTLE OF Santiago (A.D. 1898). Willis John Abbot THE BATTLE OF Omdurman (a.d. 1898). G. W. Steevens . . THE BATTLE OF MANILA BAY (A.D. 1898). Willis John Abbot. 2359 THE PEACE CONFERENCE (A.D. 1899). Eleonore d'Esterre-Keeling 2371 THE BATTLE OF ELANDSLAAGTE (A.D. 1899). G. W. Steevens. 2380 TELEGRAPHY WITHOUT WIRES. Silvanus P. Thompson THE BOXER Movement (a.d. 1900). Sir Robert Hart THE SEPARAtion of Sweden and NorWAY. Henry Seton Karr 2476 THE FIRST RUSSIAN PARLIAMENT. A. S. Rappoport LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS VOLUME FIVE FUNERAL OF KING CARLOS OF PORTUGAL PASSING SCENE OF ASSAS SINATION (A.D. 1908). RUSSIAN STORES SET ON FIRE BY JAPANESE SHELLS AT PORT ARTHUR (A.D. 1904). REPULSE OF LONGSTREET'S Assault at GETTYSBURG (A.D. 1863). From Painting by Walker. FOREIGN TROOPS ENTERING PEKIN AT THE TIME OF THE BOXER MOVEMENT (A.D. 1900). From a Photograph. MODERN ILLUMINATION T ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE luminations HE first illuminants were probably torches made of resinous woods, which will give a flame for a considerable time. Then the resin, exuding from many kinds of trees, would be collected and applied to sticks or twigs, or to some fibrous Ancient ilmaterials tied up in bundles, such as are still used by many savage peoples, and were used in the old baronial halls. For outdoor lights, torches were used almost down to our times, an indication of which is seen in the iron torchextinguishers at the doors of many of the older West End houses; while, before the introduction of gas, link-boys were as common in the streets as match-sellers are now. Then came lamps, formed of small clay cups, holding some melted animal fat and a fibrous wick; and, somewhat later, rushlights and candles. Still later, vegetable oils were used for lamps, and wax candles; but the three modes of obtaining illumination for 'domestic purposes remained entirely unchanged in principle, and very little improved throughout the whole period of history down to the end of the Eigh(1981) Vol. 5 A Greek and camps. teenth Century. The Greek and Roman Roman lamps, though in beautiful receptacles of bronze or silver, were exactly the same in principle as those of the lowest savage, and hardly better in light-giving power; and, though various improvements in form were introduced, the first really important advance was made by the Argand burner. This introduced a current of air into the centre of the flame as well as outside it, and, by means of a glass chimney, a regular supply of air was kept up, and a steady light produced. Although the invention was made at the end of the last century, the lamps were not sufficiently improved and cheapened to come into use till about 1830; and from that time onward many other improvements were made, chiefly dependent on the use of the cheap mineral oils, rendering lamps so inexpensive, and producing so good a light, that they are now found in the poorest cottages. Improvements in candles. The only important improvement in candles is due to the use of paraffin fats instead of tallow, and of flat, plaited wicks which are consumed by the flame. In my boyhood, the now extinct "snuffers" were in universal use, from the common rough iron article in the kitchen to elaborate polished steel springsnuffers of various makes for the parlor, with pretty metal or papier maché trays for them to stand in. Candles are still very largely used, being more portable and safer than most |