the group. These women should compare favorably with any other group of women who have succeeded in reaching the top in their chosen profession, for the teaching of young children is so different from the teaching of adolescent pupils of secondary schools, that it should be a profession to itself. No teacher should find it necessary to change her profession to get more salary, as the grade teacher does now when she is compelled to become either a principal or high school teacher if she is ambitious to achieve either advance in salary or in professional recognition. We find that fifty-three spend less than $100 on dress. What sort of an appearance must they make? No wonder you can pick out the experienced school teacher in a crowd. Only forty-one spend as much as $100 on recreation after nine years in the school room, while fiftythree report having spent $10 or less. How many operas, concerts or theaters could they have attended that they might be amused, instructed or inspired? How much social life is possible with such an expenditure? Yet such things are the chief sources of culture for all adults, the things that keep us alive and worth while. What can they hand on to the children in the way of social experience that will be of any value? It may be they try to make it up by reading. Seventy-nine spent $10 or more for this means of culture. Then they must have gone to summer school for amusement, recreation and culture. Thirteen spent around $100 which would mean a summer term at a university. There was a summer school in the city this year and 360 attended. This would account for the small amount paid for tuition and yet permit many to have attended school. Such a large number willing to attend a school that did not then guarantee credits equivalent in value to university credits, surely speaks well for the desire of the 900 teachers to advance themselves in professional skill. Some other reason than indifference must be sought. Out of the 222 only thirty gave less than $50 to charity and war purposes, tho most of that thirty gave more than $25, while 119 gave more than the tithe of $100, and many gave more than $200. Some of that must have come out of savings accumulated during former years. They are

measuring their citizenship with a standard of money. A much more sensible standard would be what each individual could give back to the community of herself in influence upon her pupils as a return for her salary. One who possesses but a meager equipment can give but meagerly. A small percentage, impossible to name as no statistics have yet been gathered on the subject, are college women. Every one of them should grasp at everything in reach to cultivate and broaden her outlook on life. Teaching is notorious in its narrowing effect upon the mentality of the teacher unless she constantly counteracts this by every means in her power. Surely these 417 women are not deliberately unprogressive, the summer school last year denies that.

Everyone working on a salary looks forward with a certain fear or dread to old age. Each feels some provision must be made against the time of enforced idleness. What have these public servants managed to do? Remember there is no pension system in Kansas City. The amount saved for the year reaches $32,028 which includes premiums on insurance as well as other savings. One hundred and fifty-five saved more than $100; sixty-six more than $50, but less than $100; fifty-three saved less than $50; and thirty-one were so indefinite no account could be made of them; the rest, one hundred and twelve, saved nothing at all. Were they improvident?

A thoughtful survey of these tabulations shows plainly that the teachers are compelled to assume a standard of living too low to permit them to occupy the social position the public should demand of them. Adequate salaries should be paid, service should be required, standards should be set, and the teachers will reach them gladly if the way is opened. PEARL LENHART

KANSAS CITY, Mo.

IV

EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES

"The principle of cooperation is fundamental in a republic; it is the soul of both its individual and institutional life. Social friction and free interchange of experience presuppose a degree of equality; and equality, in turn, incites to combination. The individual is strong in proportion as he takes to himself the experience of all; each is increased as it gives to all." Thus wrote Professor Boone in his Education in the United States, one of our first histories of education. In union there is strength and cooperation works for the greatest good of the greatest number.

When the Pilgrim Fathers fully realized their oppression in the Old World they banded together and came to America in order to better their condition. Here they established homes, churches and schools. As their settlements grew and became scattered over the country, their different institutions likewise multiplied and were transplanted with them. Our early history shows many societies organized for the purpose of supporting and establishing schools, colleges and other institutions of learning. These societies consisted mostly of laymen with an occasional schoolmaster as members, and thus are of only passing significance in our discussion.

With the increased interest in education at the beginning of the nineteenth century, we find local organizations being formed, composed wholly of teachers, banded together for mutual improvement. The Middlesex County School Association was in existence prior to eighteen hundred, but it was not until nearly a generation later that organizations of this kind became at all numerous. During the two decades from 1830 to 1850 many local and sectional associations were formed. In direct succession to these local associations come

the so-called teachers' institutes which were quasi-local, sometimes embracing the associations of an entire county or even larger area. These institutes were for the purpose of professional instruction for the teachers, and were the natural forerunners of the normal schools. In some sections of the country teachers' institutes are still held.

In discussing the purposes of educational associations in the United States, Dr. W. T. Harris said, "The divine principle of vicariousness that prevails in the spiritual world, rendering it possible for each man, woman and child to participate profitably in the experience of another human being so that the spectacle of a deed and its consequences renders it entirely unnecessary to perform the deed itself in order to get what of good comes from doing it as a life experience this divine principle of vicariousness in the life of human souls at once explains for us the true function of teachers' associations."

As we have already seen, there had been several associations formed prior to 1830, but the first permanent association of importance was organized on August 19, of that year, in Boston under the name of the American Institute of Instruction. When we remember that at that time there were no railroads, steamboats, or other methods of transportation available except the stagecoach we can more easily realize the magnitude of the undertaking which attempted to arouse interest in a general teachers' convention. At this first meeting in Boston it is significant to note that Horace Mann, Samuel Howe and Thomas Gallaudet were present, and that these three men are the only Americans included in the list of the world's twelve greatest educators at the Congressional Library.

After holding seven annual meetings in Boston, the Institute changed its place of meeting to different cities in New England. The expenses of these meetings until 1873, were partially defrayed by appropriations from the Massachusetts Legislature. According to its stated object the Institute was "incorporated for the diffusion of useful knowledge in regard to education, and all persons interested in edu

cation could attend." The meetings of the Institute did not appeal as strongly to the public school teachers as they should have done and for this reason its functions were usurped by the various state associations in New England. Not only New England but New York and Canada also have furnished meeting places for the Institute. At first its affairs were directed by educational statesmen, later by practical teachers and now they are being directed by school administrators. The meetings are very democratic and men of all educational classes are permitted to participate in the programs. While the Institute is in a sense a sectional organization in its scope, it exerts today a considerable influence on educational affairs not alone of the East but of the whole country.

Concerning this Institute the following quotation from the pen of Dr. A. E. Winship is of interest: "In age it is peerless, in historic educational prominence it is unsurpast, in delightful professional comradeship it is in a class by itself and the present prosperity is adequate for all its necessities." It is evident then that for any consideration of the development of educational organizations in the United States, we must recognize the important part played by the American Institute of Instruction and agree with Dr. Winship who in eulogizing this Organization says, "It is well, therefore, to pause in our admiration of the educational association spirit and grandeur of today and worship at the shrine of the mother of them all," meaning the American Institute of Instruction.

The Western Literary Institute and College of Professional Teachers was organized in 1831 by representative educators from Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Kentucky, and held meetings regularly for fifteen years. It "exerted beneficial influence upon teachers and schools generally and somewhat more indirectly upon public opinion, legislative action, and the public school systems."

The American Lyceum Association held meetings as early as 1826 but it was not nationally organized till 1831. This was distinctly a national organization and pioneered the way for the National Teachers' Association. The last meeting of