to cries of sorrow, the latter to shouts of rejoicing or victory, though the reverse not infrequently occurs. Both shapes are to be met with in the poets. The first may be seen in the Electra of Euripides (843), in the Phoenician Virgins of the same author (338), in the Iliad (xxi. 10.), and in the sweet elegy of Bion on the death of Adonis. The second or jubilant form occurs, among other places, in the Seven before Thebes of Eschylus (831), and in the Trachiniæ of Sophocles (208). The war-cries aλàλą! and éλedêv! with which the Grecian soldiers were accustomed to encourage one another at the commencement of battle, were modifications of the same root; together with eleλêu in, the shout with which the Greeks both began and ended their hymns or pæans to Apollo; just as many of the Psalms (106, 113, 117, 135, 146—150) both begin and end with the equivalent Hallelujah! Pindar beautifully applies the mournful form of the word to the quivering of harp-strings. (Popμyy' èλedí¿wv.-Olymp. ix. 21); while Theocritus uses it as a name for the nightingale.--(Idyll 7, 139.) The Greek or Septuagint translation of the Scriptures seeks on all occasions to preserve the distinction between the two words. Thus, where the English version renders the laudatory form by Shout unto God! (Psalm 47, 1) Make a joyful noise! (Psalm 67, 1; 88, 1) the Septuagint reads, aλaλágare! or áλaλášate to Oe! So, too, in Psalm 33, 3, where the authorized version gives us 'Play skilfully with a loud noise,' the Seventy have beautifully rendered it καλῶς ψάλατε ἐν ἀλαλαγμῷ. The howl ye! of Isaiah, on the other hand, the Septuagint well copies as oλoλúcere! The double usage of such words as the one before us is not an unusual circumstance, the expression of intense feeling often taking shapes but little different. Tears spring from deep joy as well as sorrow, and misfortune, when at its highest, often finds vent in jocularity and laughter. The Greek exclamation anаì or TоTоì, like our own oh! expressed both misery and gladness.

49. In the Latin language the word occurs in the shape solely of ululo, the distinction usually observed in older times in regard to its dual form and application, being no longer recognized. Virgil accordingly applies it in one place to the howling of wolves (Georgic i. 486), and in another to the moaning or wailing of the Oreades or mountainnymphs, when frightened by a terrible storm (Eneid iv. 168); while Lucan uses it to represent shouts of victory,--lætis ululare triumphis. (Pharsalia i. 567.)

50. The Celtic and Teutonic families of languages retain the word in both its branches, but only as to the derivatives. Through the latter, besides hallow and holy, we have the shout of welcome or laudation,— N. S. NO. 116.-VOL. X.

hail! as in Hail, King of the Jews!' It is also the root of holla and halloo,

'List, list, I hear

Some far-off hallo break the silent air.'

COMUS.

And through the permutation of the 7 into r (both letters being liquids), it is the root likewise of hurrah, our own shout of rejoicing or victory. It is the basis, too, of Yule, the old name of Christmas (geol in AngloSaxon), just as the ancient festival of the Scandinavians called Iulfest was named from iolen, one of the northern shapes which the word assumed during its diffusion. The sorrowful form survives among us in alas! and in wail.

51. One of the most interesting illustrations of the onomatopoeias founded on the inarticulate utterances of humanity, and which afterwards assumed highly important positions in language by virtue of the law of correspondences, is seen in the innocent and ancient names familiarly given to our parents,—pa and ma. The origin of these names is clear. The sound which naturally and uniformly escapes when the lips of infancy are opened, and articulation is attempted, is that of the letter m, with a vowel either before or after it, m being a sound most emphatically labial. The sound of pa or ba is of equally early origin, for the same reason. These two sounds, which for convenience we will call ma and pa, are found accordingly, in numbers of languages, as the basis of the names which answer to the English father and mother, and their duplicates papa and mama. And not only in the Indo-European and Semitic groups of languages, but in such as are wholly unconnected with them, those for instance of the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians. The Sanscrit pitri and mâtri, the Hebrew (ab) and (am), the Greek Tarp and μýrŋp, the Latin pater and mater, the French père and mère, the German vater and mutter, the English father and mother, &c. &c., different as they are in aspect, were all derived originally from the infantine ba and ma, which are consequently their common, onomatopoetic roots. The former sound, we may add, appears in the Pehlevi or ancient Persian language as bab, and the latter in the Celtic The variation of the initial p to b, ƒ, and v, we shall explain

as mam.

presently.

As with ourselves, the Greeks had several beautiful varieties of both their words for 'father' and 'mother,' which were closely accordant, too, with our own duplicates. Their poets often use them with exquisite taste. Thus in the sixth Odyssey (65), old King Alcinous' daughter, the fair Nausikaa, so elegantly described as

ἐϋπεπλον and λευκώλενον, the beautiful-robed' and white-armed,' addresses her father in nature's own changeless language of affection, as пáññа piλe—' dear papa;' while in the Alcestis of Euripides (403), little Eumelus calls in like manner upon his dying mother, as paîa— 'dear ma.'

52. Another interesting onomatopoeia is seen in the wide-spread and prolific root which represents the sound of the shut mouth, namely, hm or dm. The Hebrew language exhibits it in the verb T (damam), 'to be silent;' the Greek in μów, to close the lips.' In Latin it shews itself in mutus, and in our own language in the expressive word dumb, which cannot be articulated without completely closing the mouth. To mumble and to hum are other forms of it. Other striking onomatopoeias of this class are those constructed in reference to laughing and speaking, in their various modes. Thus the Hebrew word 'to laugh,' is phy (tzachak), the Greek is kayɣágw, and the Latin cachinnor. The Greek word to giggle' is κxλigew; chattering' in that language is λαλία, and a slight ' whisper στριβιλικὶγξ.

53. Finally, there is a class of onomatopoeias founded on sounds of human production, which cannot be said to have reference to man's voice, though connected with his vocal organs. They require notice because they are the roots of large families of terms denoting things related to the original one by correspondence. The primary idea of the Hebrew word (chayah), to live,' for instance, is an onomatopoetic representation of breathing. It is the same with the synonymous Greek word Cáo, which has for its root the expressive term déw to breathe, a word impossible to be uttered without opening the mouth wide, and expiring a considerable volume of breath. The act of breathing is appropriate to designate life, because especially characteristic of it. Hence the Hebrew word in question signifies not only to live' (as in Genesis xi. 14; xlv. 21, &c.) but also an animal,' literally the breather;' while from the Greek Cáo 'to live' or 'breathe,' comes (@ov 'a living creature.' It is a fact of remarkable interest that the term Zaov is applied by Plato (in the Timæus) to God, He who alone hath life in Himself.' Aristotle, following his great master, makes the same use of it. (Metaphysics xiv. 8.) The translation of coa as 'beasts' in the Apocalypse, (iv. 6) we are reminded in passing, is an error for living creatures,' which the spiritual sense makes plain. But we shall have more to say about these words another time.

54. The Hebrew word for ' to drink - (saba) is another good example of this class of terms, being representative of the sound produced by sucking up, as when we drink with the hand from a rivulet.

The same sound is the root of the Latin sorbere, and of the Anglo-Saxon supan, whence our sup. So from the peculiar sound made in the throat under certain circumstances, which in English we call gargling, the Greeks called that part γαργαρεών. Το strangle (στραγγαλίζω) is equally onomatopoetic, as well as to sneeze, a sound admirably imitated in the Hebrew word for this act-y (ateeshah). There are many other words of this description in all languages, such as to yawn, to choak, to swallow, to cough, to pant, to snore, to gasp, but which there is no occasion to dwell upon.

55. On a general review of the subject of onomatopoeias, it is impossible not to be struck by their immense numbers, their singular felicity as imitative words, and the universality of their existence, both as to locality and era. They shew, at least, that if Aristotle spoke wisely when he called man (ov μμŋtikov, 'the imitative animal,' in no case could the epithet better apply than in regard to the procedures which gave birth to them. But the far more important fact which they tend to establish is, that language, to an immense extent, has arisen from onomatopoetic roots; and from this the inference is perfectly just and allowable, that they were the beginnings of all language. if a theory be proved as to nine-tenths of its claims, the remaining one cannot be refused. After one more brief but necessary digression, we shall proceed to shew in what way the construction of language was gone on with.

For

56. The subject we think it desirable to explain at the present point of our inquiry, is that of the changes which have taken place in the forms or spelling of words, and which have often rendered them so unlike the original, that to the uninitiated they seem to possess no affinity whatever. Many examples of these changes have already appeared, and others will occur as we proceed.

All the changes in the forms of words, and all the modifications of roots, may be grouped under three heads, namely;-Changes resulting from the permutation or exchange of letters, as when we see the French spelling purse' bourse. 2nd. Changes produced by the transposition of letters, as in burn and brown, which are etymologically the same word; and 3rd. Changes produced by adding fresh letters, or striking out some of those already possessed by the word, so as to enlarge or shorten it.

Of these changes the first kind take place in a fixed and uniform manner, being the result of certain natural laws connected with human speech. The others are also more or less uniform. Hence it is that there is no real difficulty in tracing the affinities of words when once the laws in question are known, and that the etymologist can decide with

unerring certainty where the unprepared observer would perceive nothing but labyrinthine contradiction. Hence, too, the same kind of changes are continually going on, though for reasons which we need not specify, they are seldom permanent, except among the illiterate.

(To be continued.)

OUR SUNDAY SCHOOLS.

DOCTRINAL CLASSES FOR THE CHILDREN OF MEMBERS.

"These ought ye to have done, and not to leave the other undone."-Matt. xxiii. 23.

THE distinguished uses that have been and are still being effected by our Sunday schools, are such as to render them peculiarly dear to the Christian. They have been long considered, by those practically acquainted with them, the right arm of the church; and they are well worthy of the appellation. They have commended themselves to the thoughtful of every class of society. Ministers have seen cause to love them, because they have felt them to be the nurseries for heaven. There not only have children learned to love the Word, but out of those whose souls were elsewhere uncared for, have been raised teachers of astonishing usefulness, members earnest for every good work, and many have there first learned to speak those words in season, that have ultimately expanded into the powerful address of the matured preacher. The most negligent of parents, those who have disregarded and despised religion for themselves, have gladly availed themselves of the Sunday school for their children; and not unfrequént are the cases in which these latter have acted as apostles in their Godless homes, and by repeating the beloved little hymn, the remark of an affectionate teacher, or the appropriate text of the Sacred Volume, have so affected their thoughtless parents, as to teach practically how true it is that "out of the mouths of babes and sucklings" the Lord "hath perfected praise." Even those who only consider occurrences around them in a political point of view, have largely confessed that to the influences of Sunday schools upon the masses of our population has been mainly owing the absence of destructive riots in this country for many years; and in 1842, when disturbance was general, the little harm that was really done was generally felt to be attributable to the humanizing effects of Sabbath schools upon the then agitated millions. On account of these great and varied uses, patent to all men, Sunday schools have won their way to universal esteem. Those who will support no other uses of religion,