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Music. head of notation, it is proper to notice some of the graces which more properly belong to harmony than to melody; the principal of these are, the tremolo, which is a reiteration of some one note of the chord; the tremando, which is a general shake or trembling of the whole chord; and most particularly the arpeggio, which is effected in imitation of the harp by striking the individual notes of the chord upwards and downwards in very quick succession.

Other Musical cha

racters.

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It remains to notice a few not unimportant Musical characters, as respect the expression of Music. The first is the pause, which, placed over a note, signifies that the duration of its sound is to be prolonged beyond its regular length; and if placed over a rest, that the part is to be silent, and that the length of the rest is considerably extended. The repeat, &, which indicates the place to which the performer must return to repeat a passage, emphatically called in Italian il segno. The direct, w employed at the end of a staff to direct the performer's attention to the succeeding note on the line or space whereon it is always placed. The single and double bar have already been explained; it is only necessary to add here, that every measure, as we have seen, contains a certain number of notes, marked by single bars, and that every strain consists of a certain number of measures, which are terminated by double bars. The slur is an arched line, connecting a group of notes thus, to signify that the group is to be played as smoothly and conjointly as possible. It differs from the tye, which is an arch merely uniting two notes on the same degree, thus,

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uniting both, it is thus marked, crescendo, or gradual increase of the sound, is marked The diminuendo, or gradual decrease of sound from loud to soft, is marked contrariwise thus, The junction of these two characters shows the first part of the note or passage is to be soft, then to swell in force, and afterwards to return to soft. The rinforzando is the reverse of the preceding.

Abbreviations are used in Music for the sake of saving time to the copyist. Thus a line drawn over or under a semibreve, or through the tail of a minim or crotchet, divides it into quavers, a double stroke into semiquavers, a triple stroke into demisemiquavers, thus, and the Italian word segue is often

used, to denote that the notes following are to be performed as the preceding ones are marked. Another sort of abbreviation is that in which the tails of minims are connected like those of quavers, thus

performed

Music.

There are other abbreviations which it is not necessary to enlarge upon in this place.

Melody

Is the arrangement and disposition of different sounds Melody. in succession in a single part, and is produced by a single voice, or instrument, and is thereby distinguished from, though often in common speech confounded with harmony, which is the union of two or more consonant contemporaneous sounds successively. Though the term melody is generally applied to the air of a piece, yet it is to be recollected that the more melody is contrived in the other parts the better will be the composition. Melodies, as will be hereafter shown in respect of harmonies, are composed of the Musical or harmonical intervals, as the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and octave; and as the octaves of each of these are but repetitions of the same sounds, whatever is said of all or any of these sounds the same may be said of their octaves. Melody is a progression therefore of sounds by skips or by degrees, or by a combination of both. Whether by skip or degree, the distance from the note last left is called an interval, and takes its name in proportion to its distance. De Momigny divides melody into two species, univocal and polyvocal. The former is that confined to a single note in each chord, the latter when it produces the effect of more than one voice. We have not space to insert his ingenious explanation, but must refer such of our readers as wish to pursue this branch of the subject to his Article Mélodie, in the Encyc. Méthod. 1818.

The names of the intervals show the number of de. grees contained between the two sounds, the extremes

being counted inclusively. They are simple and com- Intervals.. pound. The simple interval is without parts or divisions, and is contained within the octave, the compound interval consists of several lesser intervals. Those in the upper line in the following Table are simple intervals, the other three lines are compound, that is doubled, tripled, quadrupled, &c.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29, &c.

SimpleTM Double. Triple. Quadruple.

Compound intervals.

In the above Table it will be seen, that the compound interval is but a repetition of a simple interval an octave above, thus the sixteenth is a reduplication of the second and the twenty-seventh of the sixth; or, in other words, a compound interval is such whose terms are in practice, either taken in immediate succession, or when the sound is made to rise and fall from the one to the the whole is composed of all the intervals from one other by touching some intermediate degrees, so that

extreme to the other.

though consisting of two sounds equal in degree of time, The fourteen diatonic intervals are the unison, which, is still reckoned as an interval when considered in harmony. The minor second, sometimes denominated the flat second, is the interval formed by two sounds at the distance of a diatonic semitone, as from B to C, and E to F. It is also necessarily found in the other scales, as will hereafter be seen. The major second, consisting of a whole tone. The minor third, which contains a whole tone and a diatonic semitone. The major third

Music.

Inversion.

Major and

minor modes.

containing two whole tones. The perfect fourth composed of two tones and a diatonic semitone. The sharp fourth containing three whole tones, and thence called by the Ancients the Tritonus. The flat fifth contains two tones and two semitones, but not three whole tones, it may be rather said to consist of two minor thirds. The perfect fifth, which contains three tones and one semitone, or a major and minor third. The minor sixth, consisting of three tones and two semitones, also divisible into six semitones, and joined to a major third completing the octave. The major sixth, which contains four tones and one semitone, or nine semitones. The minor seventh, containing four tones and two semitones, divisible also into a fifth and minor third, or into ten semitones. The major seventh, called also the sharp seventh, composed of five tones and one semitone, also divisible into a fifth and major third, or into eleven semitones. Lastly, the octave, which is composed of eight degrees. The octave then consists of thirteen sounds, and, as it has only twelve intervals, it must therefore be recollected, that the fourteen diatonic intervals above described arise from counting the unison as one of them, and by the distinction between the sharp fourth and flat fifth, though upon keyed instruments the same key expresses them both. It will appear thence, as we have before mentioned, that the seven notes of the scale are capable of forming seven species of octaves according to the places of the natural semitones. We subjoin for more distinct comprehension a synopsis of the intervals just described:

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Flat 5th. Perfect 5th. Minor 6th. Major 6th. Minor 7th. Major 7th. Octave.

Inversion is caused by placing the lower note of an interval an octave higher, or the converse, thus a second is converted into a seventh, a third into a sixth, a fourth into a fifth. By this process the major are converted into minor intervals, and the contrary. The sharp fourth is turned into a flat fifth, and the unison becomes an Octave.

In speaking of the Ecclesiastical tones, we have adverted to the authentic and plagal modes, and have explained that the authentic has its melody between the key note and its octave, whilst the plagal is confined between the fifth of the key, and its octave or twelfth. A consideration of this may have already led the reader to reflect upon the major and minor modes of Music now to be mentioned. It is usual to denominate the scale by the species of third which it carries, either major

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or minor; this, in truth, gives it the name of the major or minor mode; and Malcolm, very judiciously, to prevent confusion, and for greater exactness in the nomenclature, says, that an octave with its natural and essential degrees is a mode; but with respect to its place in the scale of Music, that is, its pitch of tune, it is a key, though that name be peculiarly applied to the fundamental. Whence it follows, that the same mode may be with different keys, that is, an octave of sounds may be raised in the same order and kind of degrees, which makes the same mode, and yet be begun higher or lower with respect to the whole, which will make different keys; and, on the contrary, that the same key may be with different modes, that is to say, that the extremes of two octaves may be in the same degree of tune, and the division of them be different.

Music

Under the head of Melody we do not think consonant Cons and dissonant intervals properly find place, they may be nances and more fittingly considered under Harmony, to which the dissoreader is referred. We shall here merely state, that what are called the consonant intervals as most agreeable to the ear, are the octave, fourth, fifth, the two thirds, and the two sixths, that seconds and sevenths are always considered dissonant, and that the fourth and fifth are only considered consonant when perfect.

Chromatic and Enharmonic Melodies.

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The preceding observations have been applicable to the Chromatic melody arising from the use of a diatonic scale. We shall monic now consider the other scales. The chromatic scale bas lody. its etymology in the Greek word xpupa, colour, according to the authority of some, because the Greeks distinguished it by differently coloured characters; according to others because the chromatic genus was a mean between the diatonic and enharmonic genera as colour is a mean between black and white; but according to others, because this genus varies and embellishes the diatonic by its semitones, producing in Music the same species of variety that colours do in a Picture. As in the diatonic genus the tone is its characteristic, so in the chromatic the semitone is the distinguishing element. Thus a scale formed of semitones inserted between all the natural tones is called a chromatic scale, and the melodies used upon it are chromatic melodies. The enharmonic scale is formed by uniting the ascending with the descending scale of the chromatic genus, by the use of an interval created between the sharpened note of the preceding, and the flattened note of the succeeding one. It consequently contains intervals smaller than the semitone. These, though not exactly equal to half a semitone, are, from their approximation to that quantity, called Dieses, or Quarter Tones. These matters will be better understood by the inspection of the scales which we here therefore append.

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In the enharmonic scale here we have inserted the intervals Fb and E#, also Cb and B#, but they do not pro

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Descending. to bolo to go #o bono bomo o toho #boho

perly belong to the scale as their distance is smaller than a quarter tone. Rightly to understand this, it

Music. must be known that in the theory of harmonics, the interval of a tone throughout the diatonic scale is not equal in every part; for instance, the tone between the fourth and fifth is imaginably divided into nine parts, called commas, whereas that between the fifth and sixth of the major scale consists of only eight commas. So the diatonic semitone consists of five commas, and the chromatic semitone of three or four, according to the magnitude of the tone. There is an interval, also, called hyperoche, which by nice calculation is found to be a comma and a half.

cales or eys.

Scales or Keys.

It will now easily occur to the reader, that there may be many diatonic scales formed out of an octave of sounds, the notes in each bearing certain relations to some principal note from which they are derived, and on which they depend; this is called the key note or tonic. The guides to point out this key note will be the places which the semitones hold in the scale. In the diatonic scale it has been seen that these fall between EF and BC in the major mode. It has been noticed, that in the minor mode the two diatonic semitones are between the second and third, and between the fifth and sixth degrees. The only series of this kind among the natural notes is the key of A as under, and which may be taken as a specimen of all the minor scales.

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It is necessary to observe, that in performing on keyed instruments, such notes as E, the sixth flat in the last signature, B natural is used instead of it owing to the imperfection of dividing the instrument so with Gb, &c. &c.

The scale of the minor mode, which differs as we have seen in the place of its semitones, varies also from it by the ascending and descending scales being different, for when the seventh of the scale ascends to the octave, or eighth, it must be sharp as the leading note to the tonic. This sharp is always, however, omitted in the signatures of the minor keys, but marked accidentally in the melody when required. But with this sharp seventh alone, a very harsh chromatic interval, called the extreme sharp second, occurs between F and G# in the natural scale, and to avoid this the sixth also is made sharp, and thus the accidental scale of the minor has two notes altered from the signature, but in the descending scale the leading note being depressed to fall on the sixth the signature requires no accidentals.

The signatures of the minor modes are the same as those of the major proceeding either by sharps or flats, thus,

By Sharps.

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So if D be taken as the tonic or key note, we shall not only have to sharpen the F, but C then becomes the seventh, and that also must be sharpened, thus bringing two sharps, till having gone through the scale with the fresh creation of sharpened notes, we shall have arrived at the key of F sharp with six sharps. Instead of being marked as they occur, which in writing would be an inconvenient practice, it is usual to place them at the beginning of a staff immediately after the clef, and this tures. is called the signature of the key, thus,

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The major and minor scales bearing similar signatures are called relative, thus of the major key of D, the minor key of B is said to be its relative minor, in which case the tonic of the minor mode is found to be the sixth note ascending of the major scale bearing the signature, and these tonics will always be found one degree below the last sharp of the signature, and in signatures with flats always the third degree above the last flat.

Transposition is the changing any melody into a key or Transposi clef different from that in which it was originally composed tion. or stands written. There are two sorts of transposition, the first with regard to the clef, and the second with regard to the key. The first consists in changing the places of

Music.

Modulation.

the notes among the lines and spaces, but so that every note be set to the same letter. It is effected by moving the same clef to another line, or by using another clef, but with a signature that places the tones and semitones in the same order as before. The last, or setting the Music in a different key, is the change of it to a different pitch or key note to that in which it is noted, so that the semitones of the two fourths which compose them may be found by means of flats or sharps, exactly in the same range of proportion to each other as before transposition. Thus,

Transposed a 7th lower.

When a melody moves out of the key in which it commences, and the original scale is altered by new sharps or flats, the change is called modulation. Under this term is comprehended the regular progression of the several parts, through the sounds in the harmony of a particular key, as also the proceeding naturally from one key to another, this will be hereafter noticed under the following head Harmony. We will merely observe here, that each major scale is naturally connected with two others, which are called its attendant scales, one a fifth above it, which adds a sharp to the signature, the other a fifth below it, which adds a flat to the signature. So also every minor scale has its attendant scales. There are certain names given to notes in the scale istic notes. as peculiarly marking their character. It is not our intention to use them in the following pages, we however think it right that they should be known to and understood by the reader.

Character

First, the tonic, or key note, which is the chief sound in a melody, and upon which, either in the chief melody or in the base, all melodies terminate. Its octaves, both above and below, take the same name.

Secondly, the dominant, which is a perfect fifth above the key note. This, from its intimate connection with the key note, and the necessity of that being heard after it at the perfect final cadence in the bass, is said to govern the key note, and thence takes its name of

dominant.

Thirdly, the subdominant, or fifth below the key note, or the fourth above it in the ascending scale. It takes its name from its being also in some measure a governing note, inasmuch as the tonic requires to be heard after it in the plagal cadence.

Fourthly, the leading note, or sharp seventh, which the Germans call the subsemitone of the mode. It is always a major third above the dominant, and, consequently, as we have before observed, requires an accidental sharp or natural in the minor scale, when it

occurs.

Fifthly, the mediant, which, as its name imports, is the middle note between the tonic and dominant in ascending, hence it varies as the scale is major or minor, in short, with its learned name, it is nothing more than a major or minor third.

Sixthly, the submediant, which, as its name also im

ports, is the middle note between the tonic and sub- M dominant in the descending scale, or, in other words, the major sixth in the major scale, and in the minor scale is called the minor sixth.

Seventhly, the supertonic, or second above the key note, so called by Dr. Callcott, in his excellent Musical Grammar, to which we acknowledge ourselves under very considerable obligations; he has so translated it from the French sutonique. The reader may very advantageously refer to this Grammar for some well-chosen examples of melodies in which these seven principal notes in the scale occur.

We here close our remarks on Melody by observing that in early Music the signatures of sharp keys are usually given with a sharp less than would indicate the key in which they are written; for instance, in the key of A, the third # which occurs on G is generally inserted as an accidental; so in the flat keys, the signature of one flat will usually be found to indicate the key of B major or G minor. The key of Eb major has rarely a signature of more than two flats, the accidentals then being always marked.

Harmony

Consists in the contemporaneous production of two or Des more sounds conformable to certain rules of Art. To understand this branch of the subject the reader must refer back to a former page, (722,) in which all the different intervals occurring in the scale have been placed before him, as without the clearest understanding and recollection of those intervals his comprehension of what is now to follow will be hopeless. A concord is the relation of two sounds which is agreeable to the ear; if they are in such relation, with such a difference in pitch that being sounded together the mixture affects the ear with pleasure, that relation is called concord. Those sounds which make an agreeable compound in consonance, will also be pleasing in succession. Coc cord is included in the term Harmony, but it is more properly applied to the agreeable effect of two sounds in consonance, whereas Harmony expresses the agreement of a greater number of sounds than two. A discord i the relation of two sounds which are always of themselves disagreeable, whether applied in succession or cosonance. If two sounds are in such a relation of tune or pitch as that being contemporaneously sounded they make a mixture disagreeable to the ear, that is a discord, in contradistinction to the two agreeable sounds, which are called a concord. As concords are denominated harmonical intervals, so may discords be termed unhar monical intervals. The Harmony of discords is that wherein the discords are used as the solid and substan tial part of the Harmony. By the due interposition of a discord, the succeeding concords receive an additional lustre from the contrast. They are always, as will here after be shown, introduced into Harmony with due pre paration, and must be succeeded by concords, which

are the resolution of discords.

If to any sound its major or minor third and its perfect fifth be added, the arrangement is called a comm chord, in which it is necessary to express the minor third, if that be used, otherwise it is usually taken to be the common chord with the major third, to which, if the octave to the sound be added, we have a combination of four sounds in the harmony, thus,

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ds.

h.

we have the key note a fourth above the bass, and the chord is that called the fourth, and is accompanied, as will be seen, by the sixth. These two chords, then, the sixth and the fourth, are inversions of the common chord, and have the same note C as their expressed or understood bass, which is the fundamental bass, or that on which they are constructed. The same arrangement will also hold in respect of common chords with minor thirds. The first or common chord is expressed shortly by figures placed below the notes in the bass 58 or 3, but to the common chord these are often 83

3 5 8

omitted. The second, or chord of the sixth, is merely figured with a 6, and the third, or chord of the fourth, is denoted by the figures 2.

The most simple of the discords is called the minor seventh, or by some the dominant seventh; the latter of which appellations is given to it because it only occurs on the fifth or dominant of the key, and requires the part on which it is heard always to descend one degree. Its full accompaniment of four real parts is subjoined.

As in the case of the common chord, either of these four notes may be the bass or bottom note of the chord; yet, as with C in the common chord we have just left, the fundamental bass note of it will be G, B will be the third, D a perfect fifth, and F a minor seventh; thus

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