inting. simplest outline is that of a child resting almost solely on the os ischium, with its legs left to play at liberty, suspended from the acetabula, and with its trunk and superior extremities suspended from the vertebral column. To this lively subject may be presented a contrast as opposite as elastic childhood is to infirm and rigid age; namely, the case of sitting in an elbow-chair, with one side of the body or both supported by the aid of the ossa humeri, while the lower limbs, by alternate inflection or extension of the knees and feet, lend assistance to the torso. Here all that seems material to the representation of a just equilibrium, is that the chair or seat be firmly and evenly balanced, and not in the position represented by Hogarth in the chairing of his successful candidate.*

Rising

m a

it, &c.

(270.) 3. Rising from a seat, or from a recumbent posture. On the attitude of a person intending to rise from his knees, Da Vinci observes, (Trattato della Pittura, cap. 237.) that his first effort is to relieve one knee by removing his weight (or superincumbent centre of gravity) entirely over to the other knee. The leg at liberty having then no weight to lift but its own, raises its knee without difficulty, and plants its foot upon the ground. This operation over, the man, resting his hand upon the elevated knee, lifts his arm, head, and chest towards that side, and thus contrives to shift his whole weight over back again upon the firmly planted foot. On this foot as a fulcrum, and by means of its thigh-bone as a leaver, he raises himself. His body, in rising, draws up after it the inflected leg which, during the ascent, gradually extends itself till it stands upright beside the other.t The student will see that by giving centre of gravity common to the head, trunk, and upper members, is at some point between the regions of the abdomen and thorax. The line of direction therefore from this point must fall within a base between the ossa ischii, else the trunk to be kept from falling will require to be suspended by the action of the strong dorsal and lumbar muscles attached to the back of the ilium, while that bone is kept steady by the antagonizing femoral muscles in front aided by the weight of the femora and legs. This will happen during an inflection of the spine sideways or backwards, but not forwards, in the same degree, unless in addition to the fulcra of the ossa ischii such a portion of the femora (as when the subject is seated in a chair) be added as will enlarge the base sufficiently to incline the line of direction. Note also, that in stooping to the right or left while the body rests on only one of the ossa ischii, a similar balance must be effected, as in the case of standing upon one foot. The only difference is, that in this case the leg is no longer a supporter, but is altogether a librator. If the sitter in stooping bend his body to the right, the left leg must be stretched proportionally to the left, and vice versa. In this example, observe that the sitter is not permitted to hold by the chair or seat, which would be altogether a different case, and might be classed as a modification of climbing.

* In the reclining posture of the celebrated statue called by some the Dying Gladiator, and by some the Dying Soldier who brought news to Athens of the victory at Marathon. (Plut, de Gloria Atheniensium, vol. ii. p. 347.) The figure is supported by the right femur and part of the fibular side of the right leg. But as the body leans over to the right this base would be insufficient, since the line of direction falls without this base, and consequently the trunk would come to the ground but for the right arm, which being extended to the right beyond the line of direction, enlarges the base and forms a sufficient prop for the body. The left leg and left arm are at the same time extended to a certain degree, and form a counterpoise on the left side to the opposite inclination of the head and thorax. Observe in this statue an example of our remarks (notes to Art. 242) on drawing breath. The shoulders of the wounded man are raised, and the best position chosen for receiving air during the accumulation of blood which evidently keeps flowing within him, and must terminate in death.

One of the most graceful antique specimens of a recumbent figure is among the Elgin marbles; that of the “Ilissus," called by some the "Theseus."

We extract the following from Barclay, On Muscular Motion,

the assistance of the hands or of other additional fulcra, Of Outline. this action may be varied in innumerable ways; and that the body while rising from any recumbent posture must be balanced in a similar manner.

(271.) 4. Walking. This action, in the human sub- 4. Walking. ject, is the transfer of the line of gravitation (Art. 267.) alternately from one leg to the other, and during the transfer a simultaneous motion forwards propelling the common centre of gravity.* In this progressive process p. 290. "In rising from a chair, the centre of gravity must fall within the base upon which we are supported; and therefore this centre, by the inclination of the body or otherwise, must be brought to the base, the base brought to the centre of gravity, or both made to meet by mutual approach. Hence, in rising from a chair or sofa, where the femur and tibia were at right angles, the feet are drawn back, or the body is thrown forward, before we can assume the erect posture. In the changes of attitude while a bone is turning on its centre of motion, the centre itself is often at the same time describing either the segment of a circle, or a line composed of the segments of circles. Suppose A B (plate x. fig. 2.) represents the foot, BC the tibia, CD the femur, and DE trunk, and that the perpendicular BF, so that BC shall occupy the situation of BG, three last are to be brought by the action of their muscles to the CD the situation of G I, and D E the situation of IF; the point C on the centre B will move in the segment C G, and as C is changing its position in CG, the point D, which moves round the point C as its centre, will, if the extensions be regularly performed in the same time, describe such a curve as DI; for as the point D must necessarily move atlantad, (upwards,) and sternad, (forwards.) in order to preserve the centre of gravity, the general direction of its course must be known; and if C G be divided into equal parts, and at each of the divisions a circle described with the radius CD, the at equal distances in the sternal (forward) direction will each be points in D I corresponding in number with the points in CG, and found in the circumference of one of the circles described successively round the point C as it passes along the segment CG. In like manner, if the extensions of CD and DE be regularly performed in the same time, the point E will describe such a curve as EF, the points in E F being in the circumferences of the several circles successively described round the point D as it moves along the curve DI."

The author then proceeds to observe that the above figure explains also how the rapid extension of the several joints may carry the body directly upwards; the motions are backward and forward alternately, but all of them upward. If, therefore, the backward and forward motions be made to balance exactly their forces, the upward movement only will remain. On the other hand, if the respective motions backward and forward be equal in force, the body at the same time that it rises will have an inclination forward or backward in the direction of the prevailing force. (See MECHANICS, Composition and Resolution of Forces, sec. 19-27.)

That his illustrations might be less complex, Dr. Barclay supposes for the while the vertebral column to continue inflexible, and by its extension on the point D to be capable of forming a straight line with the femur and tibia. On this supposition, if a force were applied to the point F, it would press directly through the medium of the trunk on the femur and tibia to the point B. "But," he adds, "as the supposition is without foundation in nature, and as no two bones are ever known to form straight lines, or to be united by parallel surfaces of articulation, the pressure which one bone makes upon another must always be oblique. This causes them to turn on their centres of motion, and as their centres of motion are movable, to diffuse the pressure generally and suddenly through the whole system, and thus counteract with admirable contrivance the dangers of concussion. The curves DI and EF are merely the curves which bones describe in particular circumstances. With the assistance of movable centres, the bones, if properly directed, may be made to describe any species of line whatever, as must be evident from the motions of the hand, which has the power of following any line straight or curved that can possibly be drawn."

* The first motion in the standing figure throws the weight on one leg. The gravitating line falls, in consequence, from the gullet on that one leg, the shoulder on the same side being lowered, the shoulder on the opposite side raised, while the hip and knee sink below those of the side which supports the weight. Flaxman's Lectures on Sculpture, p. 127. But we will here translate from Borelli & more detailed description. At first view, says this venerable and often quoted authority, the progressive motion in Man may seem to resemble that of the pair of compasses BAC (plate iv. fig. 4.)

Painting. the arms are often as actively employed in balancing,* as the legs are in lifting and moving the body onwards.† placed erect upon the plane of the horizon, and forming in that erect position the isosceles triangle ABC. Raise the foot C until the line of gravitation A D coincides with A B, which we may call the line of support, (linea innixionis,) and which then becomes perpendicular to the horizon. Then round A B as an axis let the limb AC describe the portion of a cone AC E. Next, having planted the limb A C in E, again raise the compasses until A E becomes perpendicular to the horizon. Let now the other side A B revolve, describing the are B F, and in this way, by alternately making with one limb a perpendicular to the ground, and with the other a circular movement, a sort of progression may be produced. But as this mode of walking would have been equally unsightly and troubleible some, Nature has provided for the machine of the human frame a plan of locomotion much easier and more graceful. Let, for instance, the feet of a man, standing, form at the points where they touch the ground, the isosceles triangle ABC. (Plate iv. fig. 5.) To change him from this fixed state, the lever or column of the foremost leg A B is made to revolve round a centre B in a plane perpendicular to the horizon, while, at the same instant, the entire frame R of the body is impelled forward in the direction K. These combined movements are effected as follows. When the foot LC becomes extended by the action of the solæus muscle, the angle ALC becomes an obtuse angle, and since the apex of the foot touches the ground at the point C, the length of the whole leg and hip is increased by the addition of C L, the length of the foot. During this process, the isosceles triangle above described alters its form and becomes a right-angled triangle at the moment when the leg A B stands perpendicularly on the horizontal plane. During this well-known movement the entire frame R being supported by two feet may easily be made so far to incline_forwards, as that the leg A B may form a perpendicular support. By the very act also of extending the foot and the consequent elongation of A C, the ground receives a stroke from the apex C of the foot. The reaction arising from this impulse urges the machine R forward in the direction K, just as a barge impelled by a pole in the hands of a waterman is separated from the bank of a river. The impulse above described is materially assisted by a slight inclination forwards of the head and thorax towards K. By this movement the centre of gravity of the whole body, and consequently the line of gravitation, being brought outside the confines of the foot B O, exposes the whole to the risk of falling; and thus, by the law of gravitation, (sponte sua,) and without further muscular effort, the weight of the frame R will be made to change its place. The danger, too, of falling is quickly provided against by raising the foot L C, and transferring it forwards with a brisk motion to K, beyond the limits of the line of gravitation. This done, the body returns to the station of firmness and safety in which it was originally supported; and by repeated renewals of the process above detailed, is maintained in a state of progression. De Gressu Bipedum, pars Ima. prop. 156.

Da Vinci instances the case of a person walking on a rope, who balances himself without a pole by means of his extended arms, cap. 198. Also see cap. 202. 208. 350. In a great number of animals, observes Dr. Barclay, that length of neck which is necessary for procuring their food, is regularly employed by the same animals in balancing their system: and even the most careless observer may have seen that birds employ it in changing the centre of gravity from their legs towards their wings, or from their wings towards their legs, according as they choose to walk or fly. Butler in his picture of Hudibras, adheres with ludicrous accuracy to the laws of libration.

His back or rather burden showed'

As if it stooped with its own load,
To poise which equally he bore
A paunch of the same bulk before,
Which still he had a special care

294.

To keep well crammed with thrifty fare, &c. This is the duty of the soleus muscle acting by its tendon (tendo Achillis) upon the lever of the foot. We need scarcely remind the reader that the contracting power of a muscle is always nearest to that part of it termed its origin, and furthest from that part called its insertion: nor that the bones are acted upon by the > muscles as levers are by a given mechanic power. Of the three levers (see MECHANICS, Sec. 138. p. 43.) examples to our purpose may be easily given. 1. In levers of the first kind, (with the fulcrum between the power and weight as in the application of a crowbar,) we have an example in the movement of the head forwards and backwards upon the first of the cervical vertebræ, which forms the fulcrum or centre of motion on either side of which the mastoid and the occipital muscles are alternately opposed to the head's

a

While the body is balanced on one leg, the other is pro- Of Out pelled by contracting the gemellus, the solæus, the semitendinosus, the tibialis anticus, and the tibialis posticus. The tibia is, at the same moment, raised by the extensors of the knee while the entire leg is lifted and extended by the psoas, the iliacus, the pectinaus, the triceps adductor, the sartorius, and the gracilis, aided by the tensor vagina femoris.* Observe also, (Da Vinci, cap. 208. 295. 299.) that in proportion to the speed of the walker his line of direction or gravitation will be found to fall more or less forward. A slow pace will require it to lie very little forward. But it must lie considerably forward in a person walking swiftly or against the wind.†

(272.) 5. Running. The centre of gravity is here 5. R weight. Another example is seen in the act of straightening the body, or lifting it up after having inclined it forwards in making a bow. The power is in the muscles attached to the os ilium, the fulcrum is in the pelvis, (or rather the fulcra are the points where the acetabula rest on the bones of the femora,) and the weight is the upper part of the body which has been previously inclined forward. 2. The second kind of lever when the weight is between the fulcrum and power is exemplified in the act of standing on tiptoe. The power is in the muscle (soleus) at the back of the heel. The weight is that of the body over the arch of the foot, and the props are the toes. This lever is also constantly employed for propelling the centre of gravity in running or walking. It is exemplified in the legs of birds and in the hinder legs of quadrupeds. 3. The third kind of lever with the power between the prop and weight is most common. It is shown in raising a weight on the palm of the hand, and bending the arm at the elbow-joint. The power of the biceps muscle acts between the hand and elbow. (Art. 243, 244.) This kind of lever is used perpetually in the limbs. And although, of the three, it incurs the greatest expense of power, that disadvantage is compensated by the additional celerity it affords.

If we conceive the left leg to be thus raised and propelled, (as that of an infantry soldier preparing to march,) it is now ready to plant itself before the right at the usual interval of a foot's pace, and under the centre of gravity, which meanwhile has been urged forward and downward by the psoa and the iliaci interni, in conjunction with the recti and obliqui abdominis. The left knee is here for an instant slightly inflected, the better to receive the incumbent weight, and then the right limb, with its toes forcibly pressed by their flexors against the ground, proceeds to repeat a similar succession of movements as soon as the left leg becomes in its turn firmly stationed.

It is further to be noticed, that in all biped animals, whether men or birds, a remarkably characteristic depression and contrac tion take place on the side to which the supporting limb belongs, while on the opposite side we see a corresponding elevation and elongation; the humerus raised, the hip and knee lowered. The height of quadrupeds also varies in the moving animal more than in the same animal at rest. Their legs first touch in an oblique direction, but afterwards being extended in propelling the body, they are brought to make perpendiculars with the horizon, and must in doing so, elevate the parts immediately above them. Da Vinci, Trattato della Pittura, cap. 195. 249, 268. 199.

The centre of gravity, in the progression of the human subject, may be compared to a ball shifted alternately from one hand to the other, while the hand that is to receive the ball keeps continually advancing. In like manner, the legs, or abdominal extremities, advance alternately in pursuit of the centre of gravity, which may be said to be handed over from one side to the other, and which in pro portion as the head and shoulders incline further forward, requires to be pursued and caught up with the greater swiftness and prompti tude by the limb below. Care, however, must be taken, that the centre of gravity, in running, 'be only inclined in such a direction forwards, that the suspended foot may plant itself favourably under it in order to progression. Otherwise there will be the appearance of either staggering or falling. Let the student never fail to observe throughout every movement or posture of the body that the curves of the spinal column cooperate with the flexure of the sup porting limb or limbs to balance the whole system. The changes of position, Dr. Barclay well observes, are never accidental effects, but are always evidently adapted to one end, viz. the equilibrium of the body. This accounts for the serpentine shape of a well-formed spine, which (viewed from behind) is always, 1. convex from the os coccyx to the junction of the os sacrum with the ilia; then 2dly, concave from that part of the sacrum upwards to near the true ribs;

Painting. stand against a high wind requires the same sort of inclination of the upper portion of the body.*

(273.) 6. Dancing and leaping. A hop differs little from a leap, except in being performed on one foot. In porting columns should be more than two; and should consist of four, or at least of three, within which the line of gravitation (drawn per pendicularly from the centre of gravity in the body of the animal) must be included. All these important purposes are answered in the mode of progression above detailed. Moreover the movement of the entire animal frame is easily accomplished in the manner stated; because its entire weight has no need of being held suspended or lifted from the ground. The only weight requiring suspension is that of the one limb to be moved and advanced. First of all the centre of gravity is shifted forward by an impulse proceeding from the hind foot; an impulse not attempted by either of the two fore feet, because pressure from either of these upon the ground in front would drive the centre of gravity backward instead of anteriorly; but such an impulse as has been described proceeding from an elongation of the hind leg, acting like a pole in the hands of a waterman. The whole animal frame through this contrivance is impelled forward by the inflection of three upright columns; just as any vehicle is propelled by the wheels which sup port it. Again, observe, that in the suspension of the hinder foot through the action of the flexor muscles on the joints required; and afterwards in the advancement, on the same side of the animal, of its fore foot; the advantages of facility and speed must make the necessity of such a mode of operation quite apparent.

We need only remark on the foregoing statement of this acute Philosopher, that the truth of his system is very plainly distinguish able in the walk of a horse, but that if Borelli ever rode out with his patroness, Christina of Sweden, and that they put their horses to a trot, he must have observed the near foot C (plate vi. fig. 6) of her Majesty's courser, on striking the ground, so immediately followed by the stroke of the off hind foot D, as to give the appearance of a simultaneous impulse. And there can be no doubt that in a quick movement, the limb D is on its way to take up a new position before the limb B has reached the ground at H. Consequently in representing rapid progression, the feet diagonally opposed may be shown raised off the ground together; although the foremost of them must, according to Borelli, be always nearest the ground so as to strike it first. This position of the quadruped balanced upon two legs is undoubtedly unsteady, and would never take place in progressing slowly, as in walking. But during a brisk trot the suspended limbs (one on the near, the other on the off side) act as fibrators, and form an equipoise to each other, which is so momentary as never to be hazardous as long as the muscles play freely. Borelli admits that the muscles in brisk action have greater facility of balancing than when comparatively quiescent. He remarks in another place, that when dogs attempt to stand on their hind toes, (see plate vi. fig. 8,) or horses on their hind hoofs, they speedily come to the ground, having no power of remaining steady in an erect position; but they have power of walking in that erect manner, because in the course of locomotion they may balance a vacillation towards one side by an opposite leaning towards the other: just as boys go about, and even run, supported by stilts, but cannot remain quiescent without tumbling immediately. Book i. p. 173. Horses are sometimes trained (by tying their near or their off legs together) to practise a kind of ambling trot. This is an easy pace for the rider, but is not natural to the animal. Perhaps the steed of her Majesty of Sweden was so trained. It is remarkable that the plate in Borelli's Work represents the animal supported on two legs. *In running, the lumbar vertebræ are placed as in stooping; the whole spine makes an angle with the sacropubic line; (Art. 248 ;) the recti cruris, the psoa, and the iliaci draw the trunk forward and incline it to the pelvis. The femur is, at the same time, inflected by the psoæ and iliaci; the tibia by the semitendinosus, semimembra nosus, and biceps; also the foot and its phalanges are inflected and make angles with the metatarsal bones by the action of the tibialis anticus, by that of the extensors (great and small) of the toes, and by that of the extensor of the great toe. This bending of the phalanges is indispensable to running, as also the inclination of the trunk, which inclination, in a walk, varies from a stoop to the upright posture, but in running is continual. Remark also that the centre of gravity never rests during the race for an instant, but bounds forward in alternate undulations from side to side, varying its situation according to the balance of the figure by its thoracic extremities. Observe as the right foot strikes the ground the right shoulder lowered, the right arm advanced and its fore arm inflected; the left shoulder raised, the left arm thrown back, and its fore arm extended. Reverse these positions when the left foot strikes the ground,

both actions the body is inclined forwards or sideways, Of Outl according to the distance as well as according to the direction of the proposed saltus or saltatio. The greater that proposed distance,* the greater will be the inflection of the pelvic extremities. In both cases also there is an inflection of the ankle, knee, and hip joints previous to the sudden extension of them which causes the spring from off the ground.†

The elasticity of the cartilaginous part of the limbs is called forth in dancing and leaping as in running, and distinguishes all these movements from the more deliberate process of walking. The centre of gravity in those more lively movements is no longer quietly and insensibly transferred from the right to the left side, or vice versa; but is thrown off as by the action of a spring, with a jerklike impetus, which, in the trot of quadrupeds, is very perceivable. The fore foot in trotting reaches the ground with such force as excites reaction, and for a time suspends the forward movement; until the back-stroke from the hind leg diagonally opposite takes effect, and again with a sharp jerk propels the centre of gravity. The same observation applies to the gallop, during which the spring-like reaction is caused by both fore legs instead of one, and counteracted by the propelling impulse of both the hinder limbs.

The tiptoe position in dancing is the work of the extensors, (Art. 256,) together with the tibialis anticus, (ib.) while the peronus (b.) turns out the toes and points them. Dancing requires the simultaneous exertion of a great number of muscles. Those of the trunk and superior extremities are employed in balancing the figure and keeping it erect; those of the leg and inferior extremities are chiefly employed in various modifications of the several motions that have been particularized. (Art. 254, 255, 256.)

Iu leaping, the impetus, says Da Vinci, (cap. 260.) is accompanied by a rapid extension of the body immediately after having been bent, like a spring, at the joints of the hip, knees, and ankles. During this extension the body describes an oblique line. It is carried by one force upwards and by another forwards; between which two forces it moves in the curve of a large arch, such as may be seen described by the feet of the person leaping. "In preparing to take the spring, the body and thighs are drawn together. The muscles of the leg draw up the heel, so that the figure rests on the ball of the foot. The arms are thrown back. They assist, like wings, in the impulse. When the figure alights, the arms are raised above the head, and the centre of gravity" (line of gravitation) "is near the heels." Flaxman, p. 128. For accomplishing the motions above-named, we observe that the solæus, the tibialis anticus and posticus, and the peronæi, (Art. 256,) are first employed to tighten the sole of the foot. The extensors elevate at the same time the phalanges digitorum pedis. (b.) Then follows a strong propelling impulse to the body from the two first-named of these muscles. And last of all, a sudden contraction of the crurai, or crurales, (Art. 255, note,) impels the femur upwards; and a similar contraction of the glutæi, the semitendinosi, and the bicipites (Art. 254) gives a similar upward spring to the pelvis.

We translate as follows from Borelli, pars 1ma. de Saltu, prop 172 and 173. Let A B C (plate iv. fig. 7) represent a bended bow placed in an erect position round the joint (nodus) B, and resting upon the ground at C. Let FE be its line of gravitation, and let it be suddenly widened by the contraction of the cord G Q H placed at its outside edge. The result will be to make the bow spring from the ground. The bow accordingly, and its centre of gravity, will by that impetus be transplanted from the ground towards F. (Compare note to Art. 270.) This movement is no other than that of leaping, to illustrate which in the human figure we have but to add two other bows, HVX and NDE, acting simultaneously and conjointly with ABC, and place the extremity of the lowest bow on the ground at E. AB will represent the spine; BV the line of the femora; VD of the legs; and DE of the feet. Let, next, A BE (plate iv. fig. 6) represent the frame of the human body standing as at No. 1, in an erect posture, viz. with the bones of the legs, femora, and spine extended (as nearly as may be) in a right line; as so many pillars one above the other, resting perpendicularly on the ground RS. The common centre of gravity G will in this case be distant from the ground the length of the lower extremities. Next let the posture be changed for that represented in No. 2, where the several joints at B, C, and D are bent so as to make acute angles. By this infec tion the distance GE of the centre of gravity from the ground is lessened by about the length of a leg; or by only one half of its former distance while the man stood erect. If during this position a contraction be suddenly and forcibly made (at one and the same instant) of the glutai, the vasti, and solai muscles, the result will be

(274.) 7. Climbing. This attitude includes both the methods stated in Art. 267, for supporting the centre of gravity. The superior extremities are employed in suspending the body; the inferior, in their ordinary capacity of fulcra, or sustaining props, beneath it. The chief consideration for the artist is to give (as in the recumbent posture, Art. 269) neither more nor less action to the muscles of any limb than is necessary for the work it has to do, but to divide the weight naturally and suitably between the several suspending or sustaining limbs.

S. Pulling downwards, upwards, or horizontally. In these movements, wherever great strength is required, the arms are assisted by the weight of the body. If the pull is downwards the action resembles that of climbing, and the body is placed as nearly under the object pulled as is practicable. If the pull is made either upwards or horizontally, the feet are if possible so planted as that the object pulled might be seen by the figure himself between them. The horizontal direction, however, does not always afford to the feet a station so advantageous. They are therefore brought forward as nearly in the direction of the object as the nature of the ground permits.*

9. Pushing in three similar directions. The available muscular force for these motions being upon the whole weaker than for those last mentioned, greater effort must be exhibited for pushing any object than there would be for pulling one of the same weight.

(275.) 10. Carrying any weight. "The centre of gravity," observes Flaxman, "is the centre of the incumBent weight falling between the feet, if supported by both, or on the supporting foot." By the "incumbent weight" must be understood the weight of the body of the carrier joined to that of the burden. It is, says Da Vinci, necessary to equilibrium that so much of the weight of the carrier's body be thrown on the side opposite to that which bears the burden as may amount to a counterpoise; consequently the line of direction or gravitation will not fall from a point in the centre of the burden, unless the latter be considerable.t

11. Throwing any weight, or striking. To either of these operations the lower limbs are often as essential as the upper. The right hand is generally most employed; and, in the case of striking or of throwing any thing in a forward direction is powerfully assisted by the left leg and foot, which must be advanced in the direction of the blow. If, however, the blow be given backwards, the longer sweep may be obtained for the right arm by advancing the right foot. A blow forwards with the left

that the three bows ABC, BCD, and CDE will expand with great force. Through the reaction of the ground, the centre G of gravity will be impelled upwards to F. And because this movement is the consequence of an impetus, which acting uniformly in one direction cannot cease of itself; therefore it will of necessity raise the weight of the man's body clear of contact with the ground, and carry it upwards with a spring through a certain space, until the gradually increasing power of gravity equals the projectile power. From what has been said above, it is plain that three bows in the human subject are in constant exercise. They are not put into action through their natural hardness or elasticity, (materiali duritia et tensione,) but by the voluntary action of the extensor muscles. Da Vinci, della Pittura, cap. 234, 235. Ibid. cap. 200. 206, 207. 263. 350.

Ibid. 261, 262, It is justly remarked of that 'admirable figure called the Fighting Gladiator, or Lesser Ajax, that the right hand could not strike a blow while the right leg is in the position represented by the sculptor. The left arm, on the contrary, if a shield were upon it, is admirably placed for warding off a stroke, and for protecting any supposed object beneath it.

hand requires, for the same reason, the advancement of Of Compo the right foot.

12. Falling. In order to represent a falling figure, and without any part at rest, let that portion of it which is heaviest be seen to sink most, or be on its way to be lowest. The appearance of any figure previous to a fall may be easily given by transgression of any of the above rules of libration.*

We have now bestowed upon the details of Outline so much of our allotted space, as leaves us incapable of touching otherwise than briefly on the divisions that remain of the subject. But we have not limits for a perfect Treatise; and we prefer being, if possible, practically serviceable on one or two essential points, to the likelihood of being superficial upon all.†

sition.

fined as to

(276.) Composition is that exercise of the Art which Composi puts together the materials of which we have hitherto tion so debeen examining some individual elements. To composition include the belongs not only the grouping and judicious arrangement contrivance of outlines, but also the use of that relief and force, and as well as increased power of expression derived to outline from the perthe aids of chiaroscuro and colouring. Under this formance of a work. one general term, Composition, we would include all that relates to the formation or execution of a picture; from its earliest existence in the fancy of its author to its perfect completion upon his canvass ;§ all that can

A flying figure is opposed to the foregoing. It has no appa rent support, yet the heaviest part of it must be represented rising or mounting upwards. The frescos of the Italian fathers of Painting exhibit examples, never to be surpassed, of the flying figure.

+"The port-crayon," observes Sir Joshua Reynolds, addressing himself to the students of 1769,"ought to be for ever in your hands. Various methods will occur to you by which facility of drawing may be acquired. I would particularly recommend that after your return from the academy, (where I suppose your attendance to be constant,) you would endeavour to draw the figure by memory. I will even venture to add, that by perseverance in this custom, you will be able to draw the human figure tolerably correct, with as little effort of the mind as is required to trace with a pen the letters of the alphabet." Reynolds, Works, (Malone's 8vo. edition,) vol. i. p. 40. Also

See our Lexicon for the words COMPONE and COMPOSE.

Johnson's Dictionary, folio edition, for the fifth meaning of the word composition.

§ Bardon, in his vocabulary prefixed to his Histoire Universel relatif aux Arts, 8vo. 1765, thus defines invention: Qualité dépendante du génie. Elle trouve les choses que la composition arrange. Du Fresnoy also considers invention separately from composition, and calls it the first part of Painting. Pictura prima pars inventio. See Reynolds, Works, vol. iii. p. 35. Dryden in his parallel, vention is the first part of, and absolutely necessary to them both. in the same volume, p. 256, between Poetry and Painting, says, inYet no rule ever was or can be given how to compass it. A happy genius is the gift of Nature. How to improve it many books can teach us; how to obtain it, none. That nothing can be done without it all agree. Tu nihil invita dices faciesve Minerva, Without invention a Painter is but a copier, and a Poet but a plagiary of others. Under this head of invention, he adds, is placed the disposition of the work to put all things in a beautiful order and harmony, that the whole may be of a piece. The composition of the Painter should be conformable to the text of ancient authors, and to the custom of the times. And this is exactly the same in Poetry. As in the composition of a picture (p. 258) the Painter is to take care that nothing enter into it which is not proper or convenient to the subject, so, likewise, is the Poet to reject all incidents which are foreign to his Poem. Sir Joshua Reynolds, at p. 107, gives a more practical definition. The invention of a Painter, he says, "consists not in inventing the subject, but in a capacity of forming in his imagination the subject in a manner best accommodated to his Art, though wholly borrowed from Poets, Historians, or popular tradition. For this purpose he has full as much to do, and perhaps more, than if the very story was invented: for he is bound to follow the ideas which he has received, and to translate them (if I may use the expression into another Art. In this translation the Painter's 4 D 2