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[-985 A.D.]

the ancestors of tribes found in the occupation of the soil; and the Pueblos and the Aztecs were only peoples relatively further advanced than the others."

DID THE AMERICANS COME FROM ASIA?

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Whence, then, came this invading race? The most nearly accepted theory accepts Asia as the original home. As Justin Winsor says, "There is not a race of eastern Asia-Siberian, Tatar, Chinese, Japanese, Malay, with the Polynesians - which has not been claimed as discoverers, intending or accidental, of American shores, or as progenitors, more or less perfect or remote, of American peoples; and there is no good reason why any of them may not have done all that is claimed. The historical evidence, however, is not such as is based on documentary proofs of indisputable character, and the recitals advanced are often far from precise enough to be convincing in details, if their general authenticity is allowed."

The paths by which the Asiatics might have come are various. The ice of the Behring Sea might have afforded a bridge; the Aleutian Islands lie like stepping-stones for gradual ventures; the great northern Pacific current might have brought to the Californian shores vessels whose sails or rudders were lost in storm, and the intermarriage of these waifs with the primitive races may have occasioned the physical differences observable between the Americans and the Asiatics, though there are numerous points of strong resemblance, and the very flora of the two coasts of the same ocean have much in common. Finally it is not thought impossible that the Malays of the Polynesian islands may have advanced timidly or accidentally toward South America, where there are many curious traces of apparent Malaysian occupation.

WHO DISCOVERED AMERICA? THE NUMEROUS CLAIMANTS

The problem of the origin of the so-called native races must then join the problem of the antiquity of man in the limbo of the unsolved. There remains still another problem unsolved, despite a whole literature of controversy. Who were the first to have brought the continent into the ken of the older and more civilised world? So many are the theories in this direction that the question is almost less, "Who discovered America?" than "Who did not?"

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Vigorously defended claims exist for the priority of the Chinese, Japanese, Polynesians, Phoenicians, Romans, Arabians, Turks, Hindoos, Basques, Welsh, Irish, French, Polish, German, Dutch, Portuguese, and Scandinavians. The Welsh asserted that Madoc, the son of Owen Gwyneth discovered America in 1170, and Hakluyt i thus describes his adventures:

"Madoc, another of Owen Gwyneth his sonnes, left the land in contention betwixt his brethren and prepared certaine ships, with men and munition, and sought adventures by seas, sailing west and leaving the coast of Ireland so farre north, that he came unto a land unknowen, where he saw many strange things. This land must needs be some part of that countrey of which the Spanyards affirme themselves to be the first finders since Hanno's time. Whereupon it is manifest that that countrey was by Britaines discovered, long before Columbus led any Spanyards thither. Of the voyage and returne of this Madoc there be many fables fained, as the common people doe use in distance of place and length of time, rather to augment than to diminish:

[The Pole, John Szkolny, latinised as Skolmus, is said to have reached Labrador in 1476 while in Danish service.]

[-985 A.D.]

but sure it is, there he was. And after he had returned home, and declared the pleasant and fruitfull countreys that he had seene without inhabitants, and upon the contrary part, for what barren and wild ground his brethren and nephewes did murther one another, he prepared a number of ships, and got with him such men and women as were desirous to live in quietnesse: and taking leave of his friends, tooke his journey thitherward againe. Therefore it is supposed that he and his people inhabited part of those countreys: for it appeareth by Francis Lopez de Gomara, that in Acuzamil and other places the people honoured the crosse. Whereby it may be gathered that Christians had bene there before the coming of the Spanyards. But because this people were not many, they followed the manners of the land which they came unto, and used the language they found there."

The Basque claim is based on better evidence, for in addition to the stories that French and Basque fishermen had known the fisheries of Newfoundland for centuries before Columbus, it is a fact, according to Peter Martyr, that Sebastian Cabot named those regions Baccalaos "because that in the seas thereabout he found so great multitude of certaine bigge fishes, much like unto tunies (which the inhabitants call baccalaos), that they sometimes stayed his shippes."

Now baccalaos is the Basque word for a codfish, and since Cabot found it in use among the inhabitants of Newfoundland, the Basques have a good argument for having arrived earlier than Cabot.

The little city of Dieppe which furnished France one of its few great naval warriors, Duquesne, claims not only to have made important discoveries in Africa, but also that a citizen named Jean Cousin was blown to Brazil in 1488 and brought back the news. There is a story that two Italians, Nicolo and Antonio Ženo reached America in 1380 or 1390. It is not considered improbable that certain Basque whalers were blown across the ocean. Two Portuguese sailors, Cortereal and Ramalho also are mentioned as discoverers of Newfoundland in 1463, and the Nuremburg map-maker Martin Behaim is said to have reached South America in 1476, though he did not himself make the claim.

From the Scriptures the sons of Japhet and the Canaanites expelled by Joshua have been looked to; in Greek mythology the inhabitants of the lost land of Atlantis have been advocated. In 1673 an American, probably with humorous intent, suggested that the exiled Trojans had found America. The study of the Indian languages has led some to find what they declared undeniably words from the Norse, the Welsh, Irish, Japanese, Tatar, and even from the Roman tongues. In the ruins of Central America, Hindu and Egyptian elements have been seen by ethnologists, and botanists have found trees of African origin.

In 1790 Benjamin Smith Barton, working with a true sense of the difference between proof and probability, heaped up a mountain of evidence on all sides of the question, and declared that a definite decision was impossible. This is the view now held by the most catholic students. None the less it is of interest to state the principal claimants for whom there is any serious evidence.

THE LAND OF FOUSANG

There exists a strange old account of some Buddhist priests who discovered the land of Fousang or Fusang. The Chinese historian Ma Twan-lin claims to quote one of these priests, Hoei Shin, who in 499 described this

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[-985 A.D.] voyage and the land of Fusang. Some have claimed that Japan or some adjacent region was the coast described; others have insisted on Mexico, claiming that the fusang tree was the Mexican maguey plant. Among those who have believed that the Buddhists actually reached America a thousand years before Columbus, and who have claimed to find traces of their residence, have been De Guignes, Neumann,' Paravey,m Leland," and more recently Vining; the vast weight of authority, however, is most decidedly against the theory.

ICELANDIC SAGAS CONCERNING THE IRISH DISCOVERY: GREAT IRELAND

The next oldest claim after the Chinese is the Irish. Irish monks and colonists were in Iceland as early as the ninth century and there is an Icelandic saga which not only claims that the Irish preceded the Norse in Iceland, but also describes the fate of the Icelandic chief, Ari Marson, who in the tenth century was storm-driven to a land occupied by Irishmen. It was called Huitramannaland, i.e. White Man's Land; or Irland it Mikla, i.e. Ireland the Great. He was there detained.

The story of Ari Marson's voyage is thus quoted by Beamish,? from Ari's famous Landnamabok: "Ulf the Squinter, son of Högna the White, took all Reykjanes, between Thorkafjord and Hafraffell; he married Björg, daughter to Eyvind the Eastman, sister to Helge the Lean; their son was Atli the Red, who married Thorbjörd, sister to Steinolf the Humble; their son was Mar of Holum, who married Thorkatla, daughter of Hergil Neprass; their son was Ari; he was driven by a tempest to White Man's Land, which some call Great Ireland; it lies to the west in the sea, near to Vinland the Good, and VI days' sailing west from Ireland.' From thence could Ari not get away, and was there baptized. The story was first told Rafn the Limerick merchant, who had long lived at Limerick in Ireland. Thus said [also] Thorkell Gellerson, that Icelanders had stated, who had heard Thorfinn Jarl of the Orkneys relate that Ari was recognised in White Man's Land, and could not get away from thence, but was there much respected."

There is an old geographical fragment, quoted by Beamish as corroborative of the preceding: "Now are there, as is said, south from Greenland, which is inhabitated, deserts, uninhabitated places, and ice-bergs, then the Skrælings, then Markland, then Vinland the Good; next, and somewhat behind, lies Albania, which is White Man's Land; thither was sailing, formerly, from Ireland; there Irishmen and Icelanders recognised Ari the son of Mar and Katla of Reykjaness, of whom nothing had been heard for a long time, and who had been made a chief there by the inhabitants."

Then there is the romantic story of the Eyrbyggja Saga concerning Bjarni Asbrandson, who having betrayed an Icelandic married woman named Thurid, who bore him a son, was attacked by her husband, Thorodd, and others, but fought off his assailants; finally, for the sake of peace, he consented to leave the country. He sailed away in 999 A.D. and was never seen there again. But in 1029 a merchant, Gudleif Gudlangson, was blown to a strange land and there found Bjarni Asbrandson among a people who spoke Irish. We quote from this quaint saga: a

["Vi daegra sigling vestr fra Irlandi.” Rafn is of opinion that the figures VI have arisen through mistake or carelessness of the transcriber of the original manuscript which is now lost, and were erroneously inserted instead of XX, XI, or perhaps XV, which would better correspond with the distance; this mistake might have easily arisen from a blot or defect in that part of the original manuscript.]

[-985 A.D.]

The Eyrbyggja Saga concerning the Irish Colony

It happened in the last years of the reign of King Olaf the Saint that Gudleif undertook a trading voyage to Dublin; but when he sailed from the west, intended he to sail to Iceland; he sailed then from the west of Ireland, and met with northeast winds, and was driven far to the west and southwest, in the sea, where no land was to be seen. But it was already far gone in the summer, and they made prayers that they might escape from the sea; and it came to pass that they saw land.

It was a great land, but they knew not what land it was. Then took they the resolve to sail to the land, for they were weary of contending longer with the violence of the sea. They found there a good harbour; and when they had been a short time on shore, came people to them: they knew none of the people, but it rather appeared to them that they spoke Irish. Soon came to them so great a number that it made up many hundreds. These men fell upon them and seized them all, and bound them, and drove them up the country. There were they brought before an assembly, to be judged. They understood so much that some were for killing them but others would have seem distributed amongst the inhabitants, and made slaves.

And while this was going on, saw they, where rode a great body of men, and a large banner was borne in the midst. Then thought they that there must be a chief in the troop; but when it came near, saw they that under the banner rode a large and dignified man, who was much in years, and whose hair was white. All present bowed down before the man, and received him as well as they could. Now observed they that all opinions and resolutions concerning their business were submitted to his decision.

Then ordered they this man Gudleif and his companions to be brought before him, and when they had come before this man, spoke he to them in the Northern tongue, and asked them from what country they came. They answered him that the most of them were Icelanders. The man asked which of them were Icelanders. Gudleif said that he was an Icelander. He then saluted the old man, and he received it well, and asked from what part of Iceland he came. Gudleif said that he was from that district which hight Borgafjord. Then inquired he from what part of Borgafjord he came, and Gudleif answered just as it was. Then asked this man about almost every one of the principal men in Borgafjord and Breidafjord; and when they talked thereon, inquired he minutely about everything, first of Snorri Godi, and his sister Thurid of Froda, and most about Kjartan her son.

The people of the country now called out, on the other side, that some decision should be made about the seamen. After this went the great man away from them, and named twelve of his men with himself, and they sat a long time talking. Then went they to the meeting of the people and the old man said to Gudleif: "I and the people of the country have talked together about your business, and the people have left the matter to me; but I will now give ye leave to depart whence ye will; but although ye may think that the summer is almost gone, yet will I counsel ye to remove from hence, for here are the people not to be trusted, and bad to deal with, and they think besides that the laws have been broken to their injury."

Gudleif answered: "What shall we say, if fate permits us to return to our own country, who has given us this freedom?" He answered: "That can I not tell you, for I like not that my relations and foster-brothers should make such a journey hereto, as ye would have made, if ye had not had the benefit of my help; but now is my age so advanced, that I may expect every

[985 A.D.] hour old age to overpower me; and even if I could live yet for a time, there are here more powerful men than me, who little peace would give to foreigners that might come here, although they be not just here in the neighbourhood where ye landed."

Then caused he their ship to be made ready for sea, and was there with them, until a fair wind sprang up, which was favourable to take them from the land. But before they separated took this man a gold ring from his hand, and gave it into the hands of Gudleif, and therewith a good sword; then said he to Gudleif: "If the fates permit you to come to your own country, then shall you take this sword to the yeoman, Kjartan of Froda, but the ring to Thurid his mother." Gudleif replied: "What shall I say, about it, as to

who sends them these valuables?"

He answered: "Say that he sends them who was a better friend of the lady of Froda, than of her brother, Godi of Helgafell; but if any man therefore thinks that he knows who has owned these articles, then say these my words, that I forbid any one to come to me, for it is the most dangerous expedition, unless it happens as fortunately with others at the landing place as with you: but here is the land great, and bad as to harbours, and in all parts may strangers expect hostility, when it does not turn out as has been with you."

After this, Gudleif and his people put to sea, and they landed in Ireland late in harvest, and were in Dublin for the winter. But in the summer after, sailed they to Iceland, and Gudleif delivered over these valuables; and people held it for certain that this man was Bjorn, the champion of Breidavik, and no other account to be relied on is there in confirmation of this, except that which is now given here.s

THE NORSE DISCOVERERS

We have given the account of the Irish settlement of Great Ireland, which sceptics have thought to be merely some European island. We come now to the Norse claims which assert that these sea-rovers came to America by way of the stepping stone of Iceland, into Greenland, and thence down the coast as far as a region where vines grew. It is claimed that the year after the first Norse settlers reached Iceland a Norseman called Gunnbjörn was driven west so far that he sighted a new land. Half a century later the Norse adventurers of whom we have already read, found Ireland the Great.

Next appears the Red Eric, a murderous brawler who left Norway for his country's good, and later found even Iceland too peaceful for him. Sent into three years' exile, he went hunting a more congenial shore. Having heard of the land that Gunnbjörn had seen, he sailed due west and found it. Returning at the end of his term of banishment he desired to take out colonists. The Saga of Eric the Red credits him with shrewdness, for "he called the land which he had found Greenland, because, quoth he, 'people will be attracted thither if the land has a good name.'

So effective were his stories of the arctic region, that in 985 (?) thirty-five ships set forth with him, of which twenty-one were lost on the way. This was the beginning of genuine colonisation. In 999 Eric's son Leif went back to Norway and found that Christianity had become the state religion. He was converted and took back to Greenland a priest, the first Christian missionary to America. This great and undoubted colonisation of a portion of arctic America was doomed to an ultimate failure, and the colonies eventually disappeared. Some have said that the Eskimos began to drive the Northmen

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